DESIGNING THE USER INTERFACE

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Designing the User Interface is written for students, researchers, designers, managers, and evaluators of interactive systems. It presents a broad survey of how to develop high-quality user interfaces for interactive systems. Readers with backgrounds in computer science, psychology, industrial engineering, information science, information systems, business, education, and communications should all find fresh and valuable material. Our goals are to encourage greater attention to usability issues and to promote further scientific study of humancomputer interaction....

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Congratulations! .-. .: .- : Thankyoufor pUfchasinga .nevvcopyotOesigning the User Interface, Fourth Edition. Your textbook includes six month$ of prepaid access to the book's Companion Website. This prepaid sUbscription provides yoU with fullaccessto all reader resourCes,including: Links to hundreds of HCI reso urces, examples, and research, which enhance and expand upon the material in each chapter. lIII Self-assessment questions. IiIi Assignments and projects. Ill! And more! To access the Designing the User Interface Companion Website for the first time: You will need to register online using a computer with an Internet connection and a Web browser. The process takes just a couple of minutes and only needs to be completed once. 1. Go to http://www.aw-bc.com/dtui. 2. Click General Resources. 3. Click the Register button. 4. Use a coin to scratch off the gray coating below and reveal your student access code*. 00 not use a knife or other sharp object, which can damage the code. 5. On the registration page, enter your student access code. 00 not type the dashes. You can use lowercase or uppercase. 6. Follow the on-screen instructions. If you need help at any time during the online registration process, simply click the Need Help? icon. 7. Once your personal login Name and Password are confirmed, you can begin using the Designing the User Interface Companion Website! To log into this Web site after you've registered: You only need to register for this Companion Website once. After that, you can access the site by going to http://www.aw-bc.com/dtui.c1icking "General Resources," and providing your Login Name and Password when prompted. "IMPORTANT: The Access Code on this page can only be used once to establish a subscription to the Designing the User Interface, Fourth Edition Companion Website. This subscription is valid for six months upon activation, and is not transferable. If this access code has already been scratched off, it may no longer be valid. If this is the H case, you can purchase a subscription by going to http://www.aw-bc.com/dtui and clicking "General ResQurces.
DESIGNING THE USER INTERFACE
DESIGNING THE USER INTERFACE .,., o c :::c -I :::c m Cl -I o Z en -I ':1J ::; m GJ m .,., en o ':1J .,., m .,., m CJ -l < m :r: c :s: » zI CJ o :s: -0 C -l m ':1J Z -l m ':1J » CJ ::! o z University of Maryland, College Park Boston San Francisco New York London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Madrid Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town Hong Kong Montreal
Executive Editor Susan Hartman Sullivan Senior Acquisitions Editor Michael Hirsch Project Editor Maite Suarez-Rivas Marketing Manager Nathan Schultz Senior Marketing Coordinator Lesly Hershman Senior Production Supervisor Jeffrey Holcomb Project Management Edalin Michael, Argosy Publishing Copyeditor Rachel Wheeler Proofreader Kim Cofer Indexer Larry Sweazy Composition and Art Argosy Publishing Cover and Interior Designer Joyce Cosentino Wells Cover Photos © 2004 Getty Images Prepress and Manufacturing Caroline Fell Access the latest information about Addison-Wesley titles from our World Wide Web site: http://www.aw-bc.com/computing Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and Addison- Wesley was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. The programs and applications presented in this book have been included for their instruc- tional value. They have been tested with care, but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The publisher does not offer any warranties or representations, nor does it accept any liabilities with respect to the programs or applications. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shneiderman, Ben. Designing the user interface: strategies for effective human-computer interaction / Ben Shneiderman, Catherine Plaisant.-4th ed. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-321-19786-0 1. Human-computer interaction. 2. User interfaces (Computer systems) I. Plaisant, Catherine. II. Title. QA76.9.H85S542004 005.1--dc22 2003068940 Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval sys- tem, o~ transmitted, ~n any. form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recordmg, or otherwise, wIthout the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. ISBN 0-321-19786-0 1 2 3 4 5 6 78 9 1O-QWT-08 07 06 05
To Jenny and Peter; Anna, Sara, and Thomas
Preface Designing the User Interface is written for students, researchers, designers, man- agers, and evaluators of interactive systems. It presents a broad survey of how to develop high-quality user interfaces for interactive systems. Readers with backgrounds in computer science, psychology, industrial engineering, informa- tion science, information systems, business, education, and communications should all find fresh and valuable material. Our goals are to encourage greater attention to usability issues and to promote further scientific study of human- computer interaction. Since publication of the first three editions of this book in 1986,1992, and 1998, practitioners and researchers have grown more numerous and influential. The quality of interfaces has improved greatly, but the community of users and their diversity has grown dramatically. Researchers and designers could claim suc- cess, but user expectations are higher, applications are more demanding, and the variety of platforms has grown. In addition to desktop computers, designers must now accommodate web-based services and mobile devices. At the same time, some innovators provoke us with virtual and augmented realities, whereas others offer alluring scenarios for ubiquitous computing, embedded devices, and tangible user interfaces. These innovations are important, but much work remains to improve the experiences of novice and expert users who still struggle with too many frustra- tions. These problems must be resolved if we are to achieve the goal of universal usability, enabling all citizens in every country to enjoy the benefits of these new technologies. This book is meant to inspire students, guide designers, and pro- voke researchers. Keeping up with the innovations in human-computer interaction is a demand- ing task. Requests for an update to the third edition began shortly after its publi- cation. The growth of the field has encouraged me (Ben Shneiderman), the author of the first three editions, to work with a co-author (Catherine Plaisant), who has been a long-time valued research partner. We harvested information from books and journals, scanned the World Wide Web, attended conferences, and consulted with colleagues. Then we returned to our keyboards to write. Our first drafts were only a starting point to generate feedback from colleagues, practitioners, and students. The work was intense, but satisfying. We hope you will put these ideas to work and produce innovations for us to report in future editions. vii
viii Preface New in the Fourth Edition Readers will see the dynamism of human-computer interaction reflected in the substantial changes to this fourth edition. The good news is that most universi- ties now offer courses in this area and some require it in computer science or other disciplines. There is still some resistance, but courses and degree programs in human-computer interaction are a growing phenomenon at every level on a worldwide basis. Corporate and government commitment to usability engineer- ing grows stronger daily, although many usability practitioners must still fight to be heard. The business case for usability has been made repeatedly and whole Web sites describe scores of studies demonstrating strong return on investment for usability efforts. Comments from instructors who used the third edition were influential in our revisions. The main change was to delete the chapter on the World Wide Web and instead describe Web-based, desktop, and mobile device designs throughout. Every chapter is updated with fresh ideas, examples, figures, and references. The opening chapter addresses the growing issue of ensuring universal usability for increasingly diverse users of interactive systems. Then guidelines, principles, and theories are substantially updated to reflect new ways of thinking. Part II covers the refinements to development methodologies, evaluation techniques, and software tools. Part III presents progress in direct manipulation and its extensions such as virtual and augmented reality, as well as changes to menus, form fillin, and command languages brought about by the new platforms, espe- cially consumer electronics devices. Since collaborative interfaces have become so central, this chapter is moved forward in the book. Part IV emphasizes Quality of Service and a series of important design issues. Since user manuals and online help are vital to serve the goal of universal usability, that chapter is thoroughly revised. Finally, information search and visualization get special coverage since we believe that these topics will continue to grow in importance. We strive to give balanced presentations on controversial topics such as 3D, speech, and natural language interfaces. Philosophical controversies such as the degree of human control and the role of animated characters are treated care- fully to present fairly the viewpoints that differ from our own. We gave col- leagues a chance to comment on these sections, and made a special effort to provide a balanced presentation while making our opinions clear. Readers will have to judge for themselves whether we succeeded. Instructors wanted more guidelines and summary tables; these elements are shown in boxes throughout the book. The Practitioner Summaries and Researcher Agendas remain popular; they are updated. The references are expanded and freshened with many new sources, with classic papers stilI included. Because
Preface ix some of the previously cited works were difficult to find, a much larger percent- age of the references now are widely available sources. Figures, especially those showing screen designs, age quickl~ so many new user interfaces are shown. The printing in full color makes these figures even more valuable. Ways to UseThis Book We hope that practitioners and researchers who read this book will want to keep it on their shelves to consult when they are working on a new topic or seeking pointers to the literature. Instructors may choose to assign the full text in the order that we present it or to make selections from it. The opening chapter is a good starting point for most students, but instructors may take different paths depending on their disci- plines. For example, instructors might emphasize the following chapters, listed by area: • Computer science: 2, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, 10, 14 • Psychology: 2, 4, 6,10,11,12,13,14 • Industrial engineering: 2, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 • Library and information science: 2,4, 10, 12, 13, 14 • Business and information systems: 3, 4,6,10,11,12,14 • Education technology: 2,4,6,10, 13, 14 • Communication arts and media studies: 4, 6, 10, 12, 13 • Technical writing and graphic design: 3,4,6, 12, 13 Companion Web Site (www.aw-bc.com/DTUI) The presence of the World Wide Web has a profound effect on researchers, designers, educators, and students. We want to encourage intense use of the Web by all these groups and to integrate it into common practice. However, the volatility of the Web is not in harmony with the pennanence of printed books. Publishing Web site URLs in the book would have been risky, because changes are made daily. For these and other reasons, we have established a Companion Web site to accompany this book. We hope that every reader will visit the site and send us ideas for improving it.
x Preface Supplements A variety of supplemental materials for this text are available at the book's Com- panion Web site: www.aw-bc.com/DTUI. The following are accessible to all readers who register using the prepaid access card in the front of this book: • Links to hundreds of human-computer interaction resources, examples, and research that enhance and expand on the material in each chapter • Chapter/section summaries • Self-test questions and discussion questions for each chapter • Homework assignments and projects Acknowledgments Writing is a lonely process; revising is a social one. We are grateful to the many colleagues and students who contributed their suggestions. We appreciate the strong contributions from Jean-Daniel Fekete to Chapter 5 and Jennifer Preece to Chapter 10. Our close daily partners at the University of Maryland have had a great influence on our work: Ben Bederson, Allison Druin, Kent Norman, Anne Rose, and Fran
Preface xi In addition, colleagues commented generously on certain chapters or sections for which they were especially knowledgeable: Len Bass, Stephen Brewster, Jus- tine Casselt Andy Cockburn, Mary Czerwinski, Daniel DeMenthon, Mikael Fernstrom, Evan Golub, Art Graesser, Michael Green, Harry Hochheiser, Bonnie John, Lewis Johnson, Dan Olsen, Judy Olson, Ian Pitt, Theresa-Marie Rhyne, George Robertson, Bernhard Suhm, Alistair Sutcliffe, and Colin Ware. We appre- ciate Kendra Knudtzon's help with the figures, and the many people and orga- nizations that provided figures are acknowledged at the end of the book. Roger Chapman and Adam Perer played instrumental roles in the development of much of the material on the book's Companion Web site. The publisher's editorial and production staff was actively involved in this book from the start. We appreciate the contributions of Michael Hirsch, Maite Suarez-Rivas, Joyce Wells, Jennifer Pelland, Jeffrey Holcomb, Lesly Hershman, Meghan James, and others. The copy editor, Rachel Wheeler, taught us a lot about lucid and informative writing. We apologize if we have left out anyone. We also appreciate the students and professionals from around the world who sent comments and suggestions. Their provocative questions about our growing discipline and profession encourage us daily. Ben Shneiderman (ben@cs.umd.edu) Catherine Plaisant (plaisant@cs.umd.edu)
Brief Contents Preface vii Part I Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Usability of Interactive Systems 3 Chapter 2 Guidelines, Principles, andTheories 59 Part II Development Processes 107 Chapter 3 Managing Design Processes 109 Chapter 4 Evaluating Interface Designs 139 Chapter 5 SoftwareTools 173 Part III Interaction Styles 211 Chapter 6 Direct Manipulation and Virtual Environments 213 Chapter 7 Menu Selection, Form Fillin, and Dialog Boxes 267 Chapter 8 Command and Natural Languages 315 Chapter 9 Interaction Devices 345 Chapter 10 Collaboration 409 Part IV Design Issues 451 Chapter 11 Quality of Service 453 Chapter 12 Balancing Function and Fashion 477 Chapter 13 User Manuals, Online Help, andTutorials 521 Chapter 14 Information Search and Visualization 559 Afterword Societal and Individual Impact of User Interfaces 609 Name Index 623 Subject Index 635 Acknowledgments 649 About the Authors 653 xiii
Contents Part I Introduction Chapter 1 Usability of Interactive Systems 3 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Usability Requirements 12 1.3 Usability Measures 15 1.4 Usability Motivations 17 1.5 Universal Usability 24 1.6 Goals for Our Profession 39 Practitioner's Summary 44 Researcher's Agenda 44 Chapter 2 Guidelines, Principles, and Theories 59 2.1 Introduction 60 2.2 Guidelines 61 2.3 Principles 66 2.4 Theories 82 2.5 Object-Action Interface Model 95 Practitioner's Summary 101 Researcher's Agenda 102 Part II Development Processes 107 Chapter 3 Managing Design Processes 109 3.1 Introduction 110 3.2 Organizational Design to Support Usability 111 3.3 The Three Pillars of Design 114 3.4 Development Methodologies 118 3.5 Ethnographic Observation 122 3.6 Participatory Design 125 3.7 Scenario Development 127 3.8 Social Impact Statement for Early Design Review 129 3.9 Legallssues 131 Practitioner's Summary 133 Researcher's Agenda 134 Chapter 4 Evaluating Interface Designs 139 4.1 Introduction 140 4.2 Expert Reviews 141 4.3 Usability Testing and Laboratories 144 4.4 Survey Instruments 150 xv
xvi Contents 4.5 AcceptanceTests 162 4.6 Evaluation During Active Use 163 4.7 Controlled Psychologically Oriented Experiments 167 Practitioner's Summary 169 Researcher's Agenda 169 Chapter 5 Software Tools 173 5.1 Introduction 174 5.2 Specification Methods 175 5.3 Interface-Building Tools 183 5.4 Evaluation and Critiquing Tools 203 Practitioner's Summary 205 Researcher's Agenda 206 Part III Interaction Styles 211 Chapter 6 Direct Manipulation and Virtual Environments 213 6.1 Introduction 214 6.2 Examples of Direct Manipulation 215 6.3 Discussion of Direct Manipulation 231 6.4 3D Interfaces 241 6.5 Teleoperation 246 6.6 Virtual and Augmented Reality 249 Practitioner's Summary 258 Researcher's Agenda 258 Chapter 7 Menu Selection, Form Fillin, and Dialog Boxes 267 7.1 Introduction 268 7.2 Task-Related Menu Organization 269 7.3 Single Menus 270 7.4 Combinations of Multiple Menus 280 7.5 Content Organization 286 7.6 Fast MovementThrough Menus 294 7.7 Data Entry with Menus: Form Fillin, Dialog Boxes, and Alternatives 295 7.8 Audio Menus and Menus for Small Displays 304 Practitioner's Summary 309 Researcher's Agenda 309 Chapter 8 Command and Natural Languages 315 8.1 Introduction 316 8.2 Functionality to Support Users'Tasks 319 8.3 Command-Organization Strategies 321 8.4 The Benefits of Structure 325 8.5 Naming and Abbreviations 328 8.6 Natural Language in Computing 331 Practitioner's Summary 340 Researcher's Agenda 341
Contents xvii Chapter 9 Interaction Devices 345 9.1 Introduction 346 9.2 Keyboards and Keypads 348 9.3 Pointing Devices 358 9.4 Speech and Auditory Interfaces 374 9.5 Displays-Small and Large 385 9.6 Printers 397 Practitioner's Summary 399 Researcher's Agenda 400 Chapter 10 Collaboration 409 10.1 Introduction 410 10.2 Goals of Collaboration 412 10.3 Asynchronous Distributed Interfaces: Different Time, Different Place 416 10.4 Synchronous Distributed Interfaces: Different Place, Same Time 429 10.5 Face-to-Face Interfaces: Same Place, Same Time 437 Practitioner's Summary 445 Researcher's Agenda 445 Part IV Design Issues 451 Chapter 11 Quality of Service 453 11.1 Introduction 454 11.2 Models of Response-Time Impacts 455 11.3 Expectations and Attitudes 462 11.4 User Productivity 466 11.5 Variability in Response Time 468 11.6 Frustrating Experiences 470 Practitioner's Summary 472 Researcher's Agenda 474 Chapter 12 Balancing Function and Fashion 477 12.1 Introduction 478 12.2 Error Messages 479 12.3 Nonanthropomorphic Design 484 12.4 Display Design 490 12.5 Window Design 501 12.6 Color 510 Practitioner's Summary 514 Researcher's Agenda 515 Chapter 13 User Manuals, Online Help, and Tutorials 521 13.1 Introduction 522 13.2 Paper Versus Online Manuals 525 13.3 Reading from Paper Versus from Displays 529 13.4 Shaping the Content of the Manuals 531 13.5 Online Manuals and Help 539
xviii Contents 13.6 Online Tutorials, Demonstrations, and Guides 546 13.7 Online Communities for User Assistance 551 13.8 The Development Process 553 Practitioner's Summary 554 Researcher's Agenda 554 Chapter 14 Information Search and Visualization 559 14.1 Introduction 560 14.2 Search in Textual Documents and Database Querying 563 14.3 Multimedia Document Searches 570 14.4 Advanced Filtering and Search Interfaces 574 14.5 Information Visualization 580 Practitioner's Summary 601 Researcher's Agenda 602 Afterword Societal and Individual Impact of User Interfaces 609 Name Index 623 Subject Index 635 Acknowledgments 649 About the Authors 653
PART Introduction