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article Original Stand and level applications of forest landscape a ecosystem classification for northwestern Ontario, Canada RA Sims BG 1 KA Baldwin 1 Mackey 1 Canadian Forest Service, Ontario Region, Department of Natural Resources, PO Box 490, 1219 Queen Street East, Sault Sainte Marie, ON, Canada P6A 5M7; 2 Department of Geography, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia 5 October (Received 2 January 1994; accepted 1994) Summary — Forest site classifications are used for a variety of resource planning and management objectives and as frameworks to address issues of biodiversity and sustainable development. The Northwestern Ontario Forest Ecosystem Classification (NWO FEC) is an ecologically based forest site classification system for northwestern Ontario, Canada. This article provides examples which show how the NWO FEC system has been applied for the purposes of ecological description at both the stand (eg 10 ha size) and landscape (eg 1:20 000 mapping scale) levels. At a stand level, the NWO FEC can be used to examine species autecologies, soil moisture requirements and wildlife habitat preferences. At a landscape level, the NWO FEC system is employed to construct landform toposequences, correlate interpreted climatic features with forest humus forms and develop spatial mod- els of ecosystem processes. In the future, classification systems such as the NWO FEC will be used for advanced simulation modelling problems at various spatial scales. boreal forest / Ontario / forest site classification / ecosystem modelling Résumé —Applications d’une classification des écosystèmes forestiers au niveau du peu- et de l’unité de paysage dans le nord-ouest de l’Ontario, Canada. Les classifications plement des stations forestières sont des outils utilisés pour atteindre divers objectifs d’aménagement et de pla- nification des ressources et servent de cadre pour aborder les questions de biodiversité et de déve- loppement durable. La classification des écosystèmes forestiers du nord-ouest de l’Ontario (NWO FEC) est un système de classification écologique des stations forestières utilisé dans le nord-ouest de l’Ontario, au Canada. Ce document présente des exemples illustrant comment le système de classi- fication NWO FEC a servi à décrire les caractéristiques écologiques au niveau d’un peuplement (p ex, sur une superficie de 10 hectares) ou d’une unité de paysage (p ex, échelle cartographique de 1:20 000). Au niveau du peuplement, ce système permet d’étudier les relations des espèces avec leur milieu (autoécologie), les besoins en eau du sol et les préférences de la faune en matière d’habitat. Au
niveau de l’unité de paysage, il sert à reconstituer les toposéquences des formes de relief, à corréler les caractéristiques climatiques décodées avec les formes d’humus du sol forestier et à élaborer des modèles spatiaux des processus écosystémiques. Les systèmes de classification comme le NWO FEC serviront à l’avenir à des simulations élaborées et permettront de modéliser des problèmes à diverses échelles spatiales. forêt boréale/Ontario / classification des stations forestières / modélisation des écosystèmes INTRODUCTION that one must be able to recognize and understand the aggregations upward and the subdivisions downward in the hierarchy Some fundamental considerations in eval- in order to make informed decisions about uating the land’s potential response to man- ecosystem units at any given scale. Scale agement and resource production capabil- also implies a certain level of perceived ity are 1) the nature of the land’s biological detail (Hills and Pierpoint, 1960; Rowe and and physical components and 2) the com- Sheard, 1981; Bailey, 1985). Ecological fea- bination or integration of these components tures and processes of primary significance to represent ecological units (Hills, 1961; at one scale are supplanted at other scales Rowe and Sheard, 1981; Jones, 1993). For- by different dominant features and pro- est site classification systems provide a cesses. framework for the organization of and com- There are various approaches devised to munication of ecologically based informa- present land cover features within an hierar- tion. By way of this structure, future chical ecological framework. In Canada, a responses of resource management activi- commonly accepted stratification is the ties may be anticipated or predicted, given Canada Committee on Ecological Land Clas- the expectation that ecologically similar con- sification’s (CCELC) hierarchical ecological ditions will respond in similar ways to given classification system which was originally sets of perturbations or effects (Bailey, 1985; devised during the early 1980s (Wiken etal, Burger and Pierpoint, 1990). A precondition 1981).The CCELC system (tableI) continues to addressing complex issues such as sus- to provide a uniform nation-wide standard. tainable development and biodiversity con- Conditions described here are associated servation is the ability to identify, understand with the microscale levels (ecoelements, and delineate those ecological units which ecosites) of the CCELC stratification. constitute the landscape. This may seem a At the stand level (eg 10 ha size, CCELC trivial step, but presently it is a severe con- ecoelements), quantitative, site-based envi- straint to the process of bringing these con- ronmental information can be used to classify cepts into some valid and usable form for and characterize forest lands in consider- resource applications and planning. able detail. Variations due to slope, vegeta- Ecosystem units (ie individual forest sites tional effects, site nutrient status, soil fea- defined according to some combination of tures (especially surficial landform patterns, vegetation, soils, site and local climate, or bedrock controls, soil texture, drainage or some spatially contiguous aggregation of moisture regime) may have major influences such forest sites) can be recognized at a on the pattern and distribution of ecosystem range of scales; typically 1 set of ecosys- units. In combination, these features serve to tem units is nested within others in hier- modify and affect the local climatic regimes a of scales archy spatial (Bailey, 1985, 1987). and, hence, vegetation growing conditions. The relationships among scales are such At the landscape level (eg 1:20 000 scale,
184 000 km in area, it extends from the north- 2 CCELC ecosites), site classifications can eastern corner of Lake Superior in the east to the provide the bases for detailed applications Ontario-Manitoba border in the west, and from and planning, especially when spatial mod- the Ontario-US border in the south to just north of elling techniques, using geographic infor- the physiographic limit of the Canadian Precam- mation systems (GIS) and other technolo- brian Shield. With the exception of a zone of gies, are used in conjunction with the strongly broken topography along the Lake Supe- field-oriented classifications. rior coast, the area is dominated by undulating, bedrock-dominated terrain. Surficial landforms The science of forest site classification and current drainage features strongly reflect the is changing rapidly. It is being aided by a effects of 4 major glaciations (Zoltai, 1965, 1967; number of new analytical approaches and Sims and Baldwin, 1991), the last of which ended technologies that can help us to effectively approximately 10 000 years BP. deal with increasingly complex ground- The forests of the study area are predomi- based and spatial data bases. This article nantly within the Boreal Forest Region (Rowe, provides a number of examples of how 1972) of Canada. In NW Ontario, these include Northwestern Ontario’s Forest Ecosystem pure or mixed stands of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb), trembling aspen (Populus Classification (NWO FEC; Sims et al, 1989) tremuloides Michx), white birch (Betula papyrifera system has been recently applied, primarily Marsh), balsam fir (Abies balsamea [L] Mill) and in a research sense, for the purposes of white and black spruces (Picea glauca [Moench] ecological description at both the stand and Voss and Picea mariana [Mill] BSP). To the west landscape level. of Lake Superior, along the US border, the forests constitute part of the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence Forest Region (Rowe, 1972) of Canada. At one time, extensive communities of red pine (Pinus MATERIALS AND METHODS resinosa Ait) and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L) dominated the landscape of this portion of NW Ontario. Over the past century, however, The northwestern Ontario study area logging and fires have influenced the forest cover of this area; it is now represented more by widespread mixed wood forests containing some The NWO FEC study area extends throughout boreal elements together with scattered red and the range of commercial forest in northwestern white pine stands of limited extent. (NW) Ontario, Canada (fig 1). Approximately
Derivation of the classification throughout NW Ontario (Sims et al, 1989; Sims and Uhlig, 1992). By applying a 2-step "keying" process, forest The NWO FEC was developed as a standard- stands can be allocated among 38 vegetation ized system to identify distinct forest vegetation types and 22 soil types. Once allocated by means and soil conditions in NW Ontario (Sims et al, of the field keys, stands are compared to corre- 1989). It forms a framework for the organization, sponding modal descriptions of vegetation and communication and application of forest man- soil types; these are provided as sets of "fact- agement expertise (Racey et al, 1989a). It is rel- sheets" in the NWO FEC field guide (Sims et al, atively simple to apply in the field, and can help 1989). Each of the types is named and associ- forest managers and others to better appreciate ated with a suite of common overstory and under- and understand ecological relationships within story vegetation species, and a defined range of mature forest stands. soil and site attributes that to character- serve Data collection for the NWO FEC was con- ize it. ducted during the period from 1983 to 1988. Work Computer-assisted ordination was conducted was carried out cooperatively by the staff of the NWO FEC vegetation data using detrended Canadian Forest Service and the Ontario Min- on istry of Natural Resources. Interim versions of reciprocal-averaging analysis (Hill, 1979; Gauch, the NWO FEC system were developed and field- 1982). This technique has been used widely for tested annually for 5 years. The final version of the the study of ecological relationships in boreal classification was based upon analysis of detailed and northern mixed wood forest communities soil, site and vegetation information from 2 167 (Corns and Annas, 1986; Stanek and Orloci, 10 m x 10 m plots located in mature forest stands 1987; Zelazny et al, 1989; Meades and Moores,
file, depth to bedrock or texture of unweathered 1990). The resulting NWO FEC vegetation types parent material can be employed to estimate the ordination (fig 2) was based upon abundance annualized index of site moisture conditions information for all vegetation species recorded (Anon, 1985). This index, known as soil mois- within NWO FEC plots. Each of the 38 plotted ture regime, was assessed for each NWO FEC points in this ordination (fig 2) represents an plot using observations from an excavated soil pit. average vegetational composition for a vegeta- Soil moisture regime measurements were sum- tion type. The distance between any 2 points is marized across 5 black spruce abundance a function of the relative degree of similarity or dif- classes (1-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-50 and ference between those types. Two main gradi- 51-100% cover) within those NWO FEC plots ents can be inferred along the axes of the vege- in which black spruce occurred within the tree tation type ordination: the horizontal axis layer (ie the vegetation layer which includes those represents a soil nutrient (poor to rich) gradient, trees which are >10 cm diameter at breast height while the vertical axis is the soil moisture (wet and/or >10 m height). dry) gradient. to Toposequences portraying soil and vegeta- gradients across common landform fea- tional Data base analyses tures were constructed using a standardized approach, described by Baldwin et al (1990). Other landscape level summaries were based on stand level attributes reported here Statistics upon additional analyses of the NWO FEC data prepared using the computerized NWO were base, in conjunction with other spatial data bases, FEC data base described earlier. Species dis- including a recently constructed digital elevation tributions within the NWO FEC vegetation types model (DEM) and mesoscale climatic surfaces ordination (fig 3) were elucidated by developing developed for NW Ontario; the derivation of these overlays using occurrence frequencies for each spatial data bases is described by Mackey and species within each vegetation type. Parame- Sims (1993) and Mackey et al (1994a). ters such as depth to mottling within the soil pro-
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ranges of vegetation which the ecological be described. Figure 3 shows, species can for 2 Cladina spp (C rangiferina [L] Harm, C Stand level applications mitis [Sandst] Hale & Culb, C stellaris [Opiz] Brodo), the relative distributions of these species across the range of NWO FEC veg- Autecology of understory species etation types. All 3 of these ground lichen The NWO FEC ordination effectively pro- species are widespread, occurring through- vides a schematic representation within out many vegetation types in NW Ontario.
relationships and other notes. Possible C stellaris is found on drier upland sites, methods for controlling these competitor especially those with infertile sand or bedrock species are also summarized. Autecological substrates; it is restricted to the upper left- descriptions of 12 commercially important hand corner of the ordination (fig 3) which tree species are considered by Sims et al represents vegetation types characterized (1990); the report summarizes biological, by nutrient-poor and dry growing conditions. soil and site features, including NWO FEC By comparison, C mitis and C rangiferina units, related to the distribution of these are found across much broader ecological species in mature forest stands in Ontario’s ranges. In NW Ontario, all 3 Cladina species North Central Region. The report includes are more frequently encountered in conifer- background information including species’ dominated stands, and may be typically shade, frost, flood and fire tolerances, repro- found in exposed locations on bare rock, ductive strategies, germination and estab- mineral soil or humus or, less frequently, on lishment requirements and associated soil raised moss hummocks or dead wood (Har- and vegetation parameters. ris, 1992; Hollstedt and Harris, 1992). Similar information on the ecological range of other plant species is provided by Soil moisture regime conditions Baldwin and Sims (1989). This field hand- for black spruce book provides identification aids and basic Black spruce in NW Ontario is associated habitat information on 157 forest plant with a wide range of soil moisture regime species, including common trees, shrubs, conditions, thus it may be found on land- herbs, graminoids, ferns, mosses and scape positions ranging from hill crests to lichens. Nontechnical language and simple lowland depressions. For those 1 300 NWO line illustrations are used to simplify field FEC plots where overstory black spruce identification of species. The publication occurred, figure 4 shows the relationship includes individual NWO FEC ordination between black spruce abundance class and diagrams for each species, showing asso- soil moisture regime. For each of the 5 abun- ciated vegetation types and species distri- dance classes, the histogram (fig 4) indi- butions across the interpreted moisture/ cates the percentage occurrence of black nutrient gradients. spruce associated with each of the 11 soil NWO FEC data base information has moisture regime classes. The wide ecolog- also been used for clarification of ecological ical tolerance of black spruce to moisture relationships among competitive understory is reflected in its broad range of distribution. species (Bell, 1990; Bell and Buse, 1992) In general, black spruce occurs less fre- and important overstory species (Sims et quently at higher abundances (eg the 31-50 al, 1990). The companion reports by Bell and >50% cover classes). In the >50% (1990) and Bell and Buse (1992) describe cover class, moisture regimes that were the autecological features of common under- moist or wet were more frequently encoun- story species that are serious competitors tered in the field. This pattern shifts for lower with crop trees in NW Ontario. Included for abundance levels: in the 1-10 and 11-20% each species is a variety of descriptive infor- cover classes, for example, the most fre- mation such as associated NWO FEC veg- quently encountered moisture regimes were etation and soil types, life cycles, repro- classes 0, 1 and 2 (fig 4), representing dry duction, soil/site characteristics conducive to and fresh conditions. growth, forestry practices that stimulate Table II compares the distribution of black growth or establishment, forestry practices spruce as a tree (1 300 NWO FEC plots), tall that reducegrowth or establishment, wildlife
(879 plots) and low shrub (1 024 plots) shrub shrubs may occur more frequently on dry soils, and less frequently on moist soils than major groupings of soil moisture across overstory black spruce (table II). regime. Within all 3 strata, fresh soils were the most frequently encountered, a condition already confirmed for overstory black spruce White-tailed deer habitat preferences in figure 4. Proportions falling into other soil moisture regime groupings were similar in all White-tailed deer are restricted to the south- strata; however, the data indicate that western corner of NW Ontario. With input
protection from severe cold and deep winter from wildlife biologists working within the is essential. The value of this cover snow "expert opinion" interpreta- study area, an is enhanced if abundant winter browse, such tion (fig 5) was prepared to identify NWO as mountain maple (Acer spicatum Lam), FEC vegetation types that are usually capa- trembling aspen, beaked hazel (Corylus cor- ble of producing preferred browse (food) nuta Marsh), red-osier dogwood (Cornus species and winter shelter for the deer in stolonifera Michx) or black ash (Fraxinus areas to be managed for that purpose nigra Marsh) exists in adjacent areas. White- (Racey et al, 1989b). tailed deer are generalist herbivores with The limiting factor for white-tailed deer critical energy requirements, particularly in NW Ontario is usually considered to be during winter; however, since most of their energy intake occurs during the snow-free winter severity; tree cover that offers some
standard set of vegetation communities that period, good quality summer forage, espe- cially grasses, deciduous leaves and a vari- can be described along toposequences ety of herbaceous species, is essential. Fig- across them. Figure 6 shows a derived ure 5 highlights those vegetation types in toposequence for a bedrock-controlled land- which most winter and summer shelter and scape in NW Ontario, showing common food requirements are met for white-tailed NWO FEC vegetation and soil types asso- deer. There are other factors that must also ciated with slope positions (Baldwin et al, be considered, including the degree of habi- 1990). tat diversity, local topography and the gen- When first introduced, the NWO FEC eral age-class distribution of forest stands in was intended for use at the stand system an area. level and normally within mature forest Since its introduction, the NWO FEC sys- stands of less than 10 ha. It was apparent, tem has been well accepted by foresters however, that mapping of ecosystem units at and resource managers, and used for a vari- a landscape level of about 1:20 000 was ety of planning and operational activities. also important, and this was subsequently To assist in this process, suites of "forest pursued as a NWO FEC-related research management interpretations" at the stand topic. Some selected pilot studies were con- level, including wildlife interpretations, were ducted to demonstrate the system’s useful- developed (Racey et al, 1989b; Sims and ness when applied within operational pre- Uhlig, 1992). Similar interpretations have harvest surveys (Towill et al, 1988), and in been constructed to describe moose habitat conjunction with mapping and photo-inter- (Racey et al, 1989a) and woodland caribou pretation programs covering extensive habitat (Harris, 1992) in NW Ontario. Welsh forested areas (Wickware, 1990). (1993) related the distribution of various for- The NWO FEC system has been demon- est-dwelling bird species to the NWO FEC strated to be valuable for conventional map- vegetation types, based upon listening sta- ping activities that involve various forest tion records throughout NW Ontario. More management objectives. Vegetation and detailed investigations involving bird habi- soil types may be aggregated into treatment tat usage and reproductive productivity are units for regional forest inventories, or other ongoing (Welsh, personal communication). extensive applications (Racey et al, 1989b). Landscape level applications Using a regional climate model to help characterize forest humus forms Landform toposequences A mesoscale climate model was used to landscape level, landform features generate estimates of long-term mean At the frequently play an important role in the def- monthly climate at each of the 2 167 NWO inition and characterization of ecological FEC plots. The climate models consist of units. Typically, there are observable topo- mathematical interpolation surfaces fitted to the regional network of 475 weather sta- graphic/geographic patterns which can be used to predict generally the characteristic tions. The interpolation procedure uses thin- landform features within an area (Mollard plate smoothing splines as developed by and Janes, 1984). In addition, most land- Hutchinson (1988; see also Nix, 1986; form/surficial patterns (ie either individual Mackay, 1993). The independent variables landforms or complexes of 2 or 3 landform for the interpolated surfaces are the longi- conditions) in a regional landscape have a tude, latitude and elevation (xyz) of each
tion and radiation. These data were further weather station. Hence, an estimate of a analyzed to produce a daily sequence of climate variable can be generated at any long-term mean daily minimum and maxi- location at which the xyz geocode is known. mum temperatures. The growing season Climate surfaces have been produced for (GS) was then defined as follows: 1) the minimum temperature, maximum tempera- start of GS is the first day after March 31 ture, total precipitation, potential evapora-
when the minimum temperature is greater Recorded at all NWO FEC plots was the than 5°C; 2) the end of GS is the first day characteristic forest humus form, using the after August 1 when minimum temperature terminology and approach of Bernier (1968) is less than -2°C. By taking a base tem- and Anon (1985). For the example pre- perature of 5°C, it was possible to gener- sented here (fig 7), only the order level of ate, at each of the NWO FEC plots, esti- the humus form classification was used, mates of growing degree days (GDD) for which defines mors, moders and mulls. the growing season. Cumulative percent occurrence plotted against GDD provides a characteristic By coupling the climate surfaces to a new response curve that describes the relative digital terrain model of NW Ontario (see position along the gradient for each forest Mackey and Sims, 1993; Mackey et al, humus form. 1994a), it has also been possible to gener- ate, for the entire region, gridded estimates In general, the 3 curves show a response of GDD for the growing season. Thus, a cell- that reflects their decomposition character- based climatic data base can be generated istics, the more highly active mulls occupy- and integrated with remotely sensed and ing warmer climates, and responding digitized mapped thematic data within a GIS. between about 1 200 and 1 680 GDD, while
models. Such models have considerable the (primarily fibrimors in NW Ontario) mors potential for improving our understanding generally colder gradient, respond across a of the dynamic processes which control for- between about 1 040 and 1 600 GDD. Mod- est growth and development in boreal forest intermediate in their response and ers are conditions. Figure 8 outlines the major pro- position. Fifty percent of each sample for gram components involved in the develop- mors, moders and mulls is acquired, respec- ment of a spatially based ecosystem model tively, at about 1 300,1 380 and 1 570 GDD in the Rinker Lake Research Area, a (fig 7). 900 km pilot mapping area located about 2 100 km north of Thunder Bay, Ontario. Spatially based ecosystem modelling Of prime importance is the need to gen- Current research is using local environ- spatial predictions of the primary envi- erate mental information from site classification ronmental regimes (energy, moisture, min- systems to construct regional-level predictive eral nutrients). This requires integrating
models that draw upon Ontario will continue to build upon the NWO computer-based selected climatic, terrain and soil/geologi- FEC framework. Particularly at the land- cal attribute data. A fine scaled (20 m) DEM scape level, new technologies and capabil- is used to spatially extend various com- ities that are now available will make the pound terrain attributes and generate pre- types of potential applications for forest site dictions of soil moisture and nutrient regimes classifications fundamentally different from (see Moore et al, 1991; Mackey et al, 1994a, those of the past. Classifications will likely b). Detailed ecological data from 142 plots become more flexible and integrative across within the Rinker Lake area (a subset of the hierarchical levels, and computer NWO FEC plot network) are used to cali- approaches involving spatial modelling on a brate these landscape models, and predict GIS and remote sensing data are providing potential vegetation distributions. All these new analytical opportunities. analyses, together with extant land cover Local environmental information, derived data from remotely sensed sources, are from forest site classification systems, will be integrated within a GIS framework. increasingly used to construct or calibrate The research is aimed at defining func- predictive spatial models at a variety of tions that link local processes and regional scales (eg see table I). Such models will resource management, in particular, the pri- seek to provide new information on, for mary environmental regimes of soil mois- example, specific regional effects of climate ture, nutrient status and climate (Mackey et change and pollution, the distribution of eco- al, 1994b; Sims and Mackey, 1994). At a logical ranges for various species and com- landscape level, detailed ecological infor- munities, temporal responses due to suc- mation from a portion of the NWO FEC plot cession and natural or anthropogenic network (142 detailed plots located within disturbances, indices of biodiversity for con- the Rinker Lake Research Area) has been servation purposes and other dynamic linked to digital elevation, hydrology and cli- mechanisms that link local-level ecological matology data using a computerized GIS processes with resource management (Mackey et al, 1994b; Sims and Mackey, needs at other scales. 1994). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CONCLUSION The development of the NWO FEC system was Site classification systems have an essen- jointly supported by the Canadian Forest Service tial role to play in resource management, and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. research and planning. The NWO FEC is Grants from the federal-provincial Northern Ontario Development Agreement’s Northern example of an ecologically based site an Forestry Program, and the federal government’s classification system that may be employed Green Plan have funded major portions of the to characterize and classify forest ecosystem landscape level investigations using DEM and units. This article has provided 6 examples GIS approaches. of how the NWO FEC system has been applied in different ways for the purposes of ecological description at the stand (local, REFERENCES eg 10 ha size) and landscape (eg 1:20 000 scale) levels. Anon (1985) Field manual for describing soils, 3rd ed. Future directions in ecological research at Ont Inst Pedol & Univ Guelph, Guelph, ON, Publ no the stand and landscape levels in NW 853, 42 p
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