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The main goal of this book is to provide the reader with recent developments in new technologies for the full meat processing chain. It starts with the production systems through the use of modern biotechnology (chapters 1 and 2); followed by automation in slaughterhouses (chapter 3); rapid nondestructive online detection systems (chapters 4, 5, and 6); the description of new technologies such as decontamination, high-pressure processing, fat reduction, functional meat compounds such as peptides or antioxidants, processing of nitrite-free products, and dry-cured meat products (chapters 7–14).

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DK3813_half 1/9/06 10:42 AM Page 1 ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES FOR MEAT PROCESSING
DK3813_series-new.qxd 2/1/06 12:01 PM Page 1 FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Editorial Advisory Board Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas Washington State University–Pullman P. Michael Davidson University of Tennessee–Knoxville Mark Dreher McNeil Nutritionals, New Brunswick, NJ Richard W. Hartel University of Wisconsin–Madison Lekh R. Juneja Taiyo Kagaku Company, Japan Marcus Karel Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ronald G. Labbe University of Massachusetts–Amherst Daryl B. Lund University of Wisconsin–Madison David B. Min The Ohio State University Leo M. L. Nollet Hogeschool Gent, Belgium Seppo Salminen University of Turku, Finland John H. Thorngate III Allied Domecq Technical Services, Napa, CA Pieter Walstra Wageningen University, The Netherlands John R. Whitaker University of California–Davis Rickey Y. Yada University of Guelph, Canada
DK3813_title 1/9/06 10:41 AM Page 1 ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES FOR MEAT PROCESSING Edited by Leo M. L. Nollet Fidel Toldrá Boca Raton London New York A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
DK3813_Discl.fm Page 1 Tuesday, September 13, 2005 8:11 AM Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 1-57444-587-1 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-57444-587-9 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005024763 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Advanced technologies for meat processing / edited by Leo M. L. Nollet and Fidel Toldrá. p. cm. -- (Food science and technology ; 158) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-57444-587-9 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-57444-587-1 (alk. paper) 1. Meat. 2. Meat industry and trade. I. Nollet, Leo M. L., 1948- II. Toldrá, Fidel. III. Food science and technology (Taylor & Francis) ; 158 TS1960.A38 2006 664'.9--dc22 2005024763 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com Taylor & Francis Group and the CRC Press Web site at is the Academic Division of Informa plc. http://www.crcpress.com
DK3813.book Page v Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Preface Meat and meat products constitute some of the most important foods in Western societies. However, the area of meat science and technology is not as fully covered as other foods from the point of view of books dealing with such important aspects as quality, analysis, and processing technology. It must be pointed out that the meat industry has incorporated important technological developments in recent years. The main goal of this book is to provide the reader with recent developments in new technologies for the full meat processing chain. It starts with the production systems through the use of modern biotechnology (chapters 1 and 2); followed by automation in slaughterhouses (chapter 3); rapid nondestructive online detection systems (chapters 4, 5, and 6); the description of new technologies such as decon- tamination, high-pressure processing, fat reduction, functional meat compounds such as peptides or antioxidants, processing of nitrite-free products, and dry-cured meat products (chapters 7–14). Bacteriocins against meat-borne pathogens and the latest developments in bacterial starters for improved flavor in fermented meats are dis- cussed in chapters 15 and 16. The two remaining chapters (17 and 18) detail recent final product packaging systems. This book is written by distinguished international contributors with extensive experience and solid reputations. It brings together all the advances in such varied and different technologies as biotechnology, irradiation, high pressure, and active packaging to be applied in different stages of meat processing. For all their efforts and for sharing their knowledge on these different topics we would like to thank very cordially all contributors of this volume.
DK3813.book Page vi Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM
DK3813.book Page vii Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Editors Leo M. L. Nollet is professor of biotechnology at Hogeschool Gent, Ghent, Belgium. The author and coauthor of numerous articles, abstracts, and presentations, Dr. Nollet is also the editor of the three-volume Handbook of Food Analysis (Second Edition), Handbook of Water Analysis, Food Analysis by HPLC (Second Edition) and Chro- matographic Analysis of the Environment (Third Edition). His research interests include air and water pollution, liquid chromatography, and applications of different chromatographic techniques in food, water, and envi- ronmental parameters analysis. He earned a master’s degree (1973) and a Ph.D. (1978) in biology from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. Fidel Toldrá earned a bachelor’s degree in chemistry in 1980, a high degree in food technology in 1981, and a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1984. He is research professor and head of the Laboratory of Meat Science at the Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia, Spain. He is also associate professor of food tech- nology at the Polytechnical University of Valencia. Professor Toldrá has received several awards such as the 2002 International Prize for Meat Science and Technology. He has authored and coauthored many book chapters, research articles, and patents. He has authored one book and coedited nine others. Professor Toldrá is the editor of the journal Trends in Food Science and Technology, editor-in-chief of the new journal Current Nutrition & Food Science, and a member of the editorial boards of Meat Science, Food Chemistry, and Journal of Muscle Foods. His research interests are based on food chemistry and biochemistry, with a special focus on muscle foods. He serves on the Executive Committee of the Euro- pean Federation of Food Science and Technology and the Scientific Commission on Food Additives of the European Food Safety Authority.
DK3813.book Page viii Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM
DK3813.book Page ix Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Contributors D. U. Ahn Animal Science Department Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Keizo Arihara Department of Animal Science Kitasato University Towada-shi, Japan Teresa Aymerich Meat Technology Center Institute for Food Research and Technology Monells, Spain José Manuel Barat Food Science and Technology Department Polytechnical University of Valencia Valencia, Spain Brian C. Bowker Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Amparo Chiralt Food Science and Technology Department Polytechnical University of Valencia Valencia, Spain Véronique Coma Centre de Recherche en Chimie Moléculaire Université Bordeaux Bordeaux, France Eric Dufour Département Qualité & Economie Alimentaires ENITA Clermont Ferrand Lempdes, France
DK3813.book Page x Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Janet S. Eastridge Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Pedro Fito Food Science and Technology Department Polytechnical University of Valencia Valencia, Spain Margarita Garriga Meat Technology Center Institute for Food Research and Technology Monells, Spain Raul Grau Food Science and Technology Department Polytechnical University of Valencia Valencia, Spain Kjell Ivar Hildrum Norwegian Food Research Institute Matforsk, Norway Terry A. Houser Department of Animal Science University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Yoshihide Ikeuchi Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology Kyushu University Fukuoka, Japan Francisco Jiménez-Colmenero Instituto del Frío (CSIC) Ciudad Universitaria Madrid, Spain Anna Jofré Meat Technology Center Institute for Food Research and Technology Monells, Spain
DK3813.book Page xi Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Ken Kim Department of Applied Biological Chemistry Niigata University Niigata, Japan E. J. Lee Animal Science Department Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Mark Loeffen Mark Loeffen & Associates Ltd. Hamilton, New Zealand Sabine Leroy SRV-UR Microbiologie INRA Theix Champanelle, France Martha N. Liu Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Belén Martín Meat Technology Center Institute for Food Research and Technology Monells, Spain Aubrey Mendonca Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Joseph M. Monfort Meat Technology Center Institute for Food Research and Technology Monells, Spain Tadayuki Nishiumi Department of Applied Biological Chemistry Niigata University Niigata, Japan
DK3813.book Page xii Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Ernest W. Paroczay Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Jitu R. Patel Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Ronald B. Pegg Department of Applied Microbiology and Food Science University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, SK, Canada Graham Purnell Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre University of Bristol Somerset, UK Peter Rådström Applied Microbiology, Lund Institute of Technology Lund University Lund, Sweden Milagro Reig Department of Food Science Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC) Valencia, Spain Jean-Pierre Renou STIM INRA Theix Champanelle, France Joseph G. Sebranek Animal Science, Food Science and Human Nutrition Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Vegard H. Segtnan Norwegian Food Research Institute Matforsk, Norway
DK3813.book Page xiii Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Fereidoon Shahidi Department of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John’s, NL, Canada Manan Sharma Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Morse B. Solomon Food Technology and Safety Laboratory USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland Atsushi Suzuki Department of Applied Biological Chemistry Niigata University Niigata, Japan Régine Talon SRV-UR Microbiologie INRA Theix Champanelle, France Hiroyuki Tanji Department of Applied Biological Chemistry Niigata University Niigata, Japan Declan J. Troy The National Food Centre Dublin, Republic of Ireland John L. Williams Division of Genetics and Genomics Roslin Institute Edinburgh, Scotland Jens Petter Wold Norwegian Food Research Institute Matforsk, Norway Petra Wolffs Applied Microbiology, Lund Institute of Technology Lund University Lund, Sweden
DK3813.book Page xiv Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM
DK3813.book Page xv Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Contents Chapter 1 Bioengineering of Farm Animals: Meat Quality and Safety.................................... 1 Morse B. Solomon, Janet S. Eastridge, and Ernest W. Paroczay Chapter 2 Gene Technology for Meat Quality ........................................................................ 21 John L. Williams Chapter 3 Automation for the Modern Slaughterhouse .......................................................... 43 Graham Purnell and Mark Loeffen Chapter 4 Hot-Boning of Meat: A New Perspective ............................................................... 73 Declan J. Troy Chapter 5 New Spectroscopic Techniques for Online Monitoring of Meat Quality .............. 87 Kjell Ivar Hildrum, Jens Petter Wold, Vegard H. Segtnan, Jean-Pierre Renou, and Eric Dufour Chapter 6 Real-Time PCR for the Detection of Pathogens in Meat..................................... 131 Petra Wolffs and Peter Rådström Chapter 7 Meat Decontamination by Irradiation ................................................................... 155 D. U. Ahn, E. J. Lee, and A. Mendonca Chapter 8 Application of High Hydrostatic Pressure to Meat and Meat Processing ........... 193 Atsushi Suzuki, Ken Kim, Hiroyuki Tanji, Tadayuki Nishiumi, and Yoshihide Ikeuchi Chapter 9 Hydrodynamic Pressure Processing to Improve Meat Quality and Safety.......... 219 Morse B. Solomon, Martha N. Liu, Jitu R. Patel, Brian C. Bowker, and Manan Sharma
DK3813.book Page xvi Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Chapter 10 Functional Properties of Bioactive Peptides Derived From Meat Proteins ......... 245 Keizo Arihara Chapter 11 New Approaches for the Development of Functional Meat Products.................. 275 Francisco Jiménez-Colmenero, Milagro Reig, and Fidel Toldrá Chapter 12 Processing of Nitrite-Free Cured Meats ............................................................... 309 Ronald B. Pegg and Fereidoon Shahidi Chapter 13 Biochemical Proteolysis Basis for Improved Processing of Dry-Cured Meats............................................................................................... 329 Fidel Toldrá Chapter 14 Vacuum Salting Treatment for the Accelerated Processing of Dry-Cured Ham................................................................................................. 353 José M. Barat, Raul Grau, Pedro Fito, and Amparo Chiralt Chapter 15 The Use of Bacteriocins Against Meat-Borne Pathogens .................................... 371 Teresa Aymerich, Margarita Garriga, Anna Jofré, Belén Martín, and Joseph M. Monfort Chapter 16 Latest Developments in Meat Bacterial Starters................................................... 401 Régine Talon and Sabine Leroy Chapter 17 Modified Atmosphere Packaging .......................................................................... 419 Joseph G. Sebranek and Terry A. Houser Chapter 18 Perspectives for the Active Packaging of Meat Products ..................................... 449 Véronique Coma Index ...................................................................................................................... 473
DK3813.book Page 1 Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM 1 Bioengineering of Farm Animals: Meat Quality and Safety Morse B. Solomon, Janet S. Eastridge, and Ernest W. Paroczay Food Technology and Safety Laboratory, USDA* CONTENTS 1.1 Bovine .............................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Ovine ................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Caprine ............................................................................................................. 8 1.4 Porcine.............................................................................................................. 8 1.5 Food Safety Implications ............................................................................... 13 References................................................................................................................ 14 A tremendous amount of variation in muscle and meat characteristics exists among and within breeds and species. Conventional science to improve muscle and meat parameters has involved breeding strategies, such as selection of dominant traits or selection of preferred traits by crossbreeding, and the use of endogenous and exog- enous growth hormones. Improvements in the quality of food products that enter the market have largely been the result of postharvest intervention strategies. Bio- technology is a more extreme scientific method that offers the potential to improve the quality, yield, and safety of animal products by direct genetic manipulation of livestock. In essence, biotechnology is a new approach to the methods of genetic selection, crossbreeding, or administration of growth hormones in its final result. However, progress in this area is very slow and has a long way to go before having an impact at a commercial usage level. Biotechnology in animals is primarily achieved by cloning, transgenesis, or trans- genesis followed by cloning. Animal cloning is a method used to produce genetically identical copies of a selected animal (i.e., one that possesses high breeding value), * Mention of brand or firm names does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture over others of a similar nature not mentioned. 1
DK3813.book Page 2 Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM 2 Advanced Technologies for Meat Processing and transgenesis is the process of altering an animal’s genome by introducing a new, foreign gene (i.e., DNA) not found in the recipient species, or deleting or modifying an endogenous gene with the ultimate goal of producing an animal expressing a beneficial function or superior attribute (e.g., adding a gene that promotes increased muscle growth). A combination of the two methods, transgenic cloning, is the process of producing a clone with donor cells that contain heritable DNA inserted by a molecular biology technique, as used in a transgenic event. A pioneering report by Palmiter et al. (1982) on the accelerated growth of transgenic mice that developed from eggs microinjected with a growth hormone fusion gene started the revolution in biotechnology of animals. Based on this research, many novel uses for biotech- nology in animals were envisioned, beginning with enhancement of production- related traits (yield and composition) and expanding into disease resistance strategies and production of biological products (i.e., pharmaceuticals). Early methods of cloning involved a technology called embryo splitting, but the traits of the resulting clones were unpredictable. Today’s method of cloning, somatic (adult) cell nuclear transfer, became established in 1997 with the production of the world’s first cloned farm animal, Dolly the sheep (Wilmut, Schnieke, McWhir, Kind, and Campbell 1997), and has since been used for cattle, goats, mice, and pigs. Cloning could be a promising method of restoring endangered or near-extinct species and populations. Production of transgenic animals is carried out by a technique called pronuclear microinjection, reported first in mice (Gordon, Scangos, Plotkin, Barbosa, and Ruddle 1980), and later adapted to rabbits, sheep, and pigs (Hammer et al. 1985). An excellent review on genome modification techniques and applications was published by Wells (2000). Before 1980, applications for patents on living organisms were denied by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) because anything found in nature was considered nonpatentable subject matter. However, U.S. scientist Ananda Chakra- barty, who wanted to obtain a patent for a genetically engineered bacterium that consumes oil spills, challenged the USPTO in a case that landed in the U.S. Supreme Court, which in 1980 ruled that patents could be awarded on anything that was human-made. Since then, some 436 transgenic or bioengineered animals have been patented, including 362 mice, 26 rats, 19 rabbits, 17 sheep, 24 pigs, 20 cows, 2 chickens, and 3 dogs (Kittredge 2005). Due to steps specific to transgenic procedures, for instance the DNA construct, its insertion site, and the subsequent expression of the gene construct, animals derived from transgenesis have more potential risks than cloned animals. Based on a National Academy of Sciences (NAS), National Research Council (NRC) report (2002), “Animal Biotechnology: Science-Based Concerns,” the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA 2003) announced that meat or dairy products from cloned animals are likely to be safe to eat, but to date has not yet approved these products for human consumption. The NAS report recommended a rigorous and comprehensive evaluation on two key issues: 1) collecting additional information about food composition to be sure that these food products are not different from normal animals, and 2) an evaluation of health status indicators of genetically engineered animals and their progeny. Even if FDA regulatory approval is granted, consumer perceptions of genetically engineered animals as food products would need to be addressed. There is a popular belief that alterations to the normal
DK3813.book Page 3 Friday, February 10, 2006 10:33 AM Bioengineering of Farm Animals 3 genetic makeup triggers the creation of harmful new compounds, or that food products derived from genetically altered animals created in a laboratory are con- siderably less wholesome and more risky to eat compared to a normal animal raised on a farm. On the other hand, the use of biotechnology in animals to treat infectious diseases or produce new vaccines may be widely accepted. In any event, bio- engineered animal products won’t be on the market in the foreseeable future: High costs ($20,000–$200,000 each), extremely low efficiency rate (< 1% for livestock, < 4% for mice), and the several-year investment of time needed to generate these animals and progeny need to be overcome. The low efficiency of the process can be attributed to three factors: embryo survival, gene integration rate, and gene expres- sion. The majority of original genetic engineering research reports focus on devel- oping faster growing animals. In the U.S., bioengineered foods are regulated by three agencies: the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture (USDA), FDA and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The USDA has oversight for meat and poultry, whereas seafood regulation falls under the FDA. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) also regulates transgenic animals because any drug or biological material created through transgenesis is con- sidered a drug and has to undergo the same scrutiny to demonstrate safety and effec- tiveness (Lewis 2001). The EPA has responsibility for pesticides that are genetically engineered into plants. In the mid-1980s, federal policy declared that biotechnologi- cally derived products would be evaluated under the same laws and regulatory author- ities used to review comparable products produced without biotechnology. As stated on the FDA Web site, the CVM has asked companies not to introduce animal clones, their progeny, or their food products into the human or animal food supply until there is sufficient scientific information available on the direct evaluation of safety. 1.1 BOVINE Information in this area is very limited and highly desired by federal agencies that regulate food safety issues. There have been some studies evaluating the meat of animals cloned from embryonic cells (Gerken, Tatum, Morgan, and Smith 1995; Harris et al. 1997; Diles et al. 1999). Those results, however, do not correspond with products from animals cloned from adult somatic cells. This is because embryonic animal clones are produced from blastomeres of fertilized embryos at a very early stage of development, and thus embryonic clones may undergo little gene repro- gramming during their development. Consequently, they would not serve well as scientific evidence for assessing the food safety risks of somatic cloned food animals. A few reports that provide data on the composition of meat and dairy products derived from adult somatic cell clones indicate that these products are equivalent to those of normal animals. The first report on the chemical composition of bovine meat arising from genetic engineering was in cloned cattle (Takahashi and Ito 2004). In meat samples derived from cloned and noncloned Japanese Black cattle at the age of 27 to 28 months, data were collected for proximate analysis (water, protein, lipids, and ash) as well as fatty acids, amino acids, and cholesterol. The results of this study showed that the nutritional properties of meat from cloned cattle are similar to those of noncloned animals, and were within recommended values of