Fundamentals and clinical applications in physics of thermal therapy: Part 1

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Physics of Thermal Therapy Fundamentals and Clinical Applications Edited by Eduardo G. Moros
Physics of Thermal Therapy
ImagIng In medIcal dIagnosIs and Therapy William R. Hendee, Series Editor Quality and safety in radiotherapy Targeted molecular Imaging Todd Pawlicki, Peter B. Dunscombe, Arno J. Mundt, Michael J. Welch and William C. Eckelman, Editors and Pierre Scalliet, Editors ISBN: 978-1-4398-4195-0 ISBN: 978-1-4398-0436-0 proton and carbon Ion Therapy adaptive radiation Therapy C.-M. Charlie Ma and Tony Lomax, Editors X. Allen Li, Editor ISBN: 978-1-4398-1607-3 ISBN: 978-1-4398-1634-9 comprehensive Brachytherapy: Quantitative mrI in cancer physical and clinical aspects Thomas E. Yankeelov, David R. Pickens, and Jack Venselaar, Dimos Baltas, Peter J. Hoskin, Ronald R. Price, Editors and Ali Soleimani-Meigooni, Editors ISBN: 978-1-4398-2057-5 ISBN: 978-1-4398-4498-4 Informatics in medical Imaging physics of mammographic Imaging George C. Kagadis and Steve G. Langer, Editors Mia K. Markey, Editor ISBN: 978-1-4398-3124-3 ISBN: 978-1-4398-7544-5 adaptive motion compensation in physics of Thermal Therapy: radiotherapy Fundamentals and clinical applications Martin J. Murphy, Editor Eduardo Moros, Editor ISBN: 978-1-4398-2193-0 ISBN: 978-1-4398-4890-6 Image-guided radiation Therapy emerging Imaging Technologies in medicine Daniel J. Bourland, Editor Mark A. Anastasio and Patrick La Riviere, Editors ISBN: 978-1-4398-0273-1 ISBN: 978-1-4398-8041-8 Forthcoming titles in the series Informatics in radiation oncology Image processing in radiation Therapy Bruce H. Curran and George Starkschall, Editors Kristy Kay Brock, Editor ISBN: 978-1-4398-2582-2 ISBN: 978-1-4398-3017-8 cancer nanotechnology: principles and stereotactic radiosurgery and radiotherapy applications in radiation oncology Stanley H. Benedict, Brian D. Kavanagh, and Sang Hyun Cho and Sunil Krishnan, Editors David J. Schlesinger, Editors ISBN: 978-1-4398-7875-0 ISBN: 978-1-4398-4197-6 monte carlo Techniques in radiation Therapy cone Beam computed Tomography Joao Seco and Frank Verhaegen, Editors Chris C. Shaw, Editor ISBN: 978-1-4398-1875-6 ISBN: 978-1-4398-4626-1
Physics of Thermal Therapy Fundamentals and Clinical Applications Edited by Eduardo G. Moros
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 2012928 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-4892-0 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
To Kimberly, your love and noble character strengthen me, and to our wonderful sons, Jonas and Ezra
Contents Series Preface. . ............................................................................................................................................... ix Preface........................................................................................................................................................... xi Editor........................................................................................................................................................... xiii Contributors..................................................................................................................................................xv part I: Foundations of Thermal Therapy Physics 1 Fundamentals of Bioheat Transfer..........................................................................................................................3 Kenneth R. Diller 2 Thermal Dose Models: Irreversible Alterations in Tissues............................................................................23 John A. Pearce 3 Practical Clinical Thermometry............................................................................................................................ 41 R. Jason Stafford and Brian A. Taylor 4 Physics of Electromagnetic Energy Sources........................................................................................................ 57 Jeffrey W. Hand 5 The Physics of Ultrasound Energy Sources ........................................................................................................ 75 Victoria Bull and Gail R. ter Haar 6 Numerical Modeling for Simulation and Treatment Planning of Thermal Therapy: Ultrasound...... 95 Robert J. McGough 7 Numerical Modeling for Simulation and Treatment Planning of Thermal Therapy............................ 119 Esra Neufeld, Maarten M. Paulides, Gerard C. van Rhoon, and Niels Kuster part II: Clinical Thermal Therapy Systems 8 External Electromagnetic Methods and Devices............................................................................................ 139 Gerard C. van Rhoon 9 Interstitial Electromagnetic Devices for Thermal Ablation......................................................................... 159 Dieter Haemmerich and Chris Brace 10 Clinical External Ultrasonic Treatment Devices ............................................................................................ 177 Lili Chen, Faqi Li, Feng Wu, and Eduardo G. Moros 11 Endocavity and Catheter-Based Ultrasound Devices .................................................................................... 189 Chris J. Diederich vii
viii Contents part III: Physical Aspects of Emerging Technology for Thermal Therapy 12 Evolving Tools for Navigated Image-Guided Thermal Cancer Therapy .................................................. 203 Kevin Cleary, Emmanuel Wilson, and Filip Banovac 13 Temperature Imaging Using Ultrasound.. ......................................................................................................... 219 R. Martin Arthur 14 Focused Ultrasound Applications for Brain Cancer ...................................................................................... 241 Meaghan A. O’Reilly and Kullervo Hynynen 15 Extracorporeal Ultrasound-Guided High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound Ablation for Cancer Patients . . ..................................................................................................................................................................... 255 Feng Wu 16 Using Hyperthermia to Augment Drug Delivery . . .......................................................................................... 279 Mark W. Dewhirst 17 Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy ................................................................................................... 293 Michael L. Etheridge, John C. Bischof, and Andreas Jordan 18 Application of Gold Nanoparticles (GNP) in Laser Thermal Therapy ..................................................... 319 Zhenpeng Qin and John C. Bischof 19 Thermochemical Ablation ..................................................................................................................................... 339 Erik N. K. Cressman
Series Preface Advances in the science and technology of medical imaging and radiation therapy are more profound and rapid than ever before, since their inception over a century ago. Further, the disciplines are increasingly cross-linked as imaging methods become more widely used to plan, guide, monitor, and assess treatments in radiation therapy. Today the technologies of medical imaging and radiation therapy are so complex and so computer driven that it is difficult for the persons (physicians and technologists) respon- sible for their clinical use to know exactly what is happening at the point of care, when a patient is being examined or treated. The professionals best equipped to understand the technologies and their applications are medical physicists, and these individuals are assuming greater responsibilities in the clinical arena to ensure that what is intended for the patient is actually delivered in a safe and effective manner. The growing responsibilities of medical physicists in the clinical arenas of medical imaging and radiation therapy are not without their challenges, however. Most medical physicists are knowledgeable in either radiation therapy or medical imaging and expert in one or a small number of areas within their discipline. They sustain their expertise in these areas by reading scientific articles and attending scientific meetings. In contrast, their responsibilities increasingly extend beyond their specific areas of expertise. To meet these responsibilities, medical physicists periodically must refresh their knowledge of advances in medical imaging or radia- tion therapy, and they must be prepared to function at the intersection of these two fields. How to accomplish these objectives is a challenge. At the 2007 annual meeting in Minneapolis of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, this challenge was the topic of conversation during a lunch hosted by Taylor & Francis Publishers and involving a group of senior medical physicists (Arthur L. Boyer, Joseph O. Deasy, C.-M. Charlie Ma, Todd A. Pawlicki, Ervin B. Podgorsak, Elke Reitzel, Anthony B. Wolbarst, and Ellen D. Yorke). The conclusion of this discussion was that a book series should be launched under the Taylor & Francis banner, with each vol- ume in the series addressing a rapidly advancing area of medical imaging or radiation therapy of importance to medical physicists. The aim would be for each volume to provide medical physicists with the information needed to understand technologies driving a rapid advance and their applications to safe and effective delivery of patient care. Each volume in the series is edited by one or more individuals with recognized expertise in the technological area encompassed by the book. The editors are responsible for selecting the authors of individual chapters and ensuring that the chapters are comprehen- sive and intelligible to someone without such expertise. The enthusiasm of the volume editors and chapter authors has been gratify- ing and reinforces the conclusion of the Minneapolis luncheon that this series of books addresses a major need of medical physicists. Imaging in Medical Diagnosis and Therapy would not have been possible without the encouragement and support of the series manager, Luna Han of Taylor & Francis Publishers. The editors and authors and, most of all, I are indebted to her steady guidance of the entire project. William Hendee Series Editor Rochester, Minnesota ix
Preface The field of thermal therapy has been growing tenaciously in the last few decades. The application of heat to living tissues, from mild hyperthermia to high temperature thermal ablation, produces a host of well-documented genetic, cellular, and physiological responses that are being intensely researched for medical applications, in particular for the treatment of solid cancerous tumors using image guidance. The controlled application of thermal energy (heat) to living tissues has proven to be a most challenging feat, and thus it has recruited expertise from multiple disciplines leading to the development of a great number of sophisticated preclinical and clinical devices and treatment techniques. Among the multiple disciplines involved, physics plays a fundamental role because controlled heating demands knowledge of acoustics, electromagnetics, thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechan- ics, numerical modeling, imaging, and many other topics traditionally under the umbrella of physics. This book attempts to capture this highly multidisciplinary field! Therefore, it is not surprising that when I was offered the honor of editing a book on the physics of thermal therapy, I was faced with trepidation. After 25 years of research in thermal therapy physics and engineering and radiation oncologic physics, I was keenly aware of the vastness of the field and my humbling ignorance. Even worse, the rapid growth of the field makes it impossible, in my opinion, to do it justice in one tome. Consequently, tough decisions had to be made in choosing the content of the book, and these were necessarily biased by my experience and the kindness of the contributing authors. The book is divided into three parts. Part I covers the fundamental physics of thermal therapy. Since thermal therapies imply a source of energy and the means for the controlled delivery of energy, Part I includes chapters on bio-heat transfer, thermal dose, thermometry, electromagnetic and acoustic energy sources, and numerical modeling. This part of the book, although not exhaus- tive, can be thought of as an essential requirement for any person seriously seeking to learn thermal therapy physics. Part II offers an overview of clinical systems (or those expected to be clinical in the near future) covering internally and externally applied electromagnetic and acoustic energy sources. Despite the large number of devices and techniques presented, these must be regarded as a sample of the current clinical state of the art. A future book on the same topic may have a similar Part I while the con- tents of Part II would be significantly different, as clinical technology experiences advances based on clinical practice and new needs. The last section of the book, Part III, is composed of chapters describing the physical aspects of an emerging thermal therapy tech- nology. The spectrum is wide, from new concepts relatively far from clinical application, such as thermochemical ablation, through technologies at various stages in the translational continuum, such as nanoparticle-based heating and heat-augmented liposomal drug delivery, to high-intensity-focused ultrasound interventions that are presently being investigated clinically. Imaging plays a crucial role in thermal therapy, and many of the newer approaches are completely dependent on image guidance during treatment administration. Therefore, Part III also covers both conventional as well as emerging imaging technologies and tools for image- guided therapies. Although there are published books covering the physics and technology of hyperthermia, therapeutic ultrasound, radiofre- quency ablation, and other related topics, to my knowledge this is the first book with the title Physics of Thermal Therapy. For this I have to thank Dr. William Hendee, a medical physicist par excellence and the series editor, who had the original idea for the book. In regard to the target audience, the book has been written for physicists, engineers, scientists, and clinicians. It will also be useful to graduate students, residents, and technologists. Finally, I must confess that it is extremely difficult to remain modest about the list of outstanding contributors. A well-established expert, at times in collaboration with his/her colleagues, graduate student(s), or postdoctoral fellow(s), has authored each chapter. I am profoundly grateful to all for the time and effort they invested in preparing their chapters. I would also like to thank Luna Han and Amy Blalock from Taylor & Francis for their patience, assistance, and guidance during the entire process leading to this book. xi
xii Preface MATLAB ® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB ® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB ® software. MATLAB ® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please contact: The MathWorks, Inc. 3 Apple Hill Drive Natick, MA, 01760-2098 USA Tel: 508-647-7000 Fax: 508-647-7001 E-mail: info@mathworks.com Web: www.mathworks.com
Editor Eduardo G. Moros earned a PhD in mechanical engineering from the University of Arizona, Tucson, in 1990. His graduate studies were performed at the radiation oncology department in the field of scanned focused ultrasound hyperthermia for cancer therapy. After a year as a research associate at the University of Wisconsin, Madison in the human oncology department, he joined the Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology at Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, where he was the chief of hyperthermia physics (1991–2005) and the head of the research physics section (2001–2005). He was promoted to associate professor with tenure in 1999 and to professor in 2005. In August 2005, Dr. Moros joined the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences as the director of the division of radiation physics and informatics. Currently, he is the chief of medical physics for the departments of radiation oncology and diagnostic imag- ing at the H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute in Tampa, Florida. Dr. Moros served as president of the Society for Thermal Medicine (2004–2005), as associate editor for the journal Medical Physics (2000–2007) and the International Journal of Hyperthermia (2006–2009), and was a permanent member of the NIH Radiation Therapeutics and Biology Study Section (2002–2005). He is an associate editor of the Journal of Clinical Applied Medical Physics and the Journal of Radiation Research. He is an active member of several scientific and professional societies, such as the American Association for Physicists in Medicine, the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology, the Bioelectromagnetics Society, the Radiation Research Society, the Society for Thermal Medicine, and the International Society for Therapeutic Ultrasound. Dr. Moros holds a certificate from the American Board of Radiology in therapeutic radiologic physics. Dr. Moros’s strength has been to collaborate with scientists and clinicians in the application of physics and engineering to facili- tate biomedical research and promote translational studies. He has published more than one hundred peer-reviewed articles and has been a principal investigator/coinvestigator on multiple research grants from the National Institutes of Health, other federal agen- cies, and industry. He was a recipient of an NIH Challenge Grant in Health and Science Research (RC1) in 2009. xiii
Contributors R. Martin Arthur Mark W. Dewhirst Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering Department of Radiation Oncology Washington University in St. Louis Duke University Medical Center St. Louis, Missouri Durham, North Carolina Filip Banovac Chris J. Diederich Department of Radiology Department of Radiation Oncology Georgetown University Medical Center University of California, San Francisco Washington, DC San Francisco, California Kenneth R. Diller John C. Bischof Biomedical Engineering Department Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Texas Department of Biomedical Engineering Austin, Texas Department of Urologic Surgery University of Minnesota Michael L. Etheridge Minneapolis, Minnesota Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Biomedical Engineering Chris Brace University of Minnesota Department of Radiology Minneapolis, Minnesota Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Wisconsin, Madison Dieter Haemmerich Madison, Wisconsin Department of Pediatrics Medical University of South Carolina Victoria Bull Charleston, South Carolina Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging Jeffrey W. Hand Institute of Cancer Research King’s College London Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom London, United Kingdom Lili Chen Kullervo Hynynen Department of Radiation Oncology Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre Fox Chase Cancer Center Toronto, Ontario, Canada Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Andreas Jordan Department of Radiology Kevin Cleary Charité-University Medicine The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation Berlin, Germany Children’s National Medical Center Washington, DC Niels Kuster Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Erik N. K. Cressman Society (IT’IS) Department of Radiology and University of Minnesota Medical Center Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ) Minneapolis, Minnesota Zurich, Switzerland xv
xvi Contributors Faqi Li R. Jason Stafford College of Biomedical Engineering Department of Imaging Physics Chongqing Medical University University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Chongqing, China Houston, Texas Robert J. McGough Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Brian A. Taylor Michigan State University Department of Radiological Sciences East Lansing, Michigan St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital Memphis, Tennessee Eduardo G. Moros H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute Gail R. ter Haar Tampa, Florida Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging Institute of Cancer Research Esra Neufeld Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT’IS) and Gerard C. van Rhoon Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ) Department of Radiation Oncology Zurich, Switzerland Erasmus MC Daniel den Hoed Cancer Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands Meaghan A. O’Reilly Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre Toronto, Ontario, Canada Emmanuel Wilson The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Maarten M. Paulides Innovation Department of Radiation Oncology Children’s National Medical Center Erasmus MC Daniel den Hoed Cancer Center Washington, DC Rotterdam, The Netherlands Feng Wu John A. Pearce Institute of Ultrasonic Engineering in Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Medicine University of Texas at Austin Chongqing Medical University Austin, Texas Chongqing, China Zhenpeng Qin and Department of Mechanical Engineering Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences University of Minnesota University of Oxford Minneapolis, Minnesota Oxford, United Kingdom
I Foundations of Thermal Therapy Physics 1 Fundamentals of Bioheat Transfer Kenneth R. Diller........................................................................................................... 3 Introduction • Heat Transfer Principles • Special Features of Heat Transfer in Biomedical Systems 2 Thermal Dose Models: Irreversible Alterations in Tissues John A. Pearce.................................................................... 23 Introduction • Irreversible Thermal Alterations in Tissues • Physical Chemical Models: Arrhenius Formulation • Comparative Measures for Thermal Histories: Thermal Dose Concept • Applications in Thermal Models • Summary 3 Practical Clinical Thermometry R. Jason Stafford and Brian A. Taylor........................................................................... 41 Introduction • Invasive Thermometry • Noninvasive Thermometry • Summary 4 Physics of Electromagnetic Energy Sources Jeffrey W. Hand............................................................................................ 57 Introduction • Static Electric and Magnetic Fields • Time-Varying Electric and Magnetic Fields • Interaction of Electric and Magnetic Fields with Tissues • Propagation of Electromagnetic Fields in Tissues • Principles of Electromagnetic Heating Techniques • Invasive Heating Techniques • External Heating Techniques 5 The Physics of Ultrasound Energy Sources Victoria Bull and Gail R. ter Haar.............................................................. 75 Introduction • Ultrasound Transduction • Acoustic Field Propagation • Interactions of Ultrasound with Tissue • Characterization and Calibration 6 Numerical Modeling for Simulation and Treatment Planning of Thermal Therapy: Ultrasound Robert J. McGough............................................................................................................................... 95 Introduction • Models of Ultrasound Propagation • Thermal Modeling and Treatment Planning • Summary 7 Numerical Modeling for Simulation and Treatment Planning of Thermal Therapy Esra Neufeld, Maarten M. Paulides, Gerard C. van Rhoon, and Niels Kuster.............................................................................................. 119 Need for Treatment Planning in Thermal Therapy • Hyperthermia Treatment Planning (HTP) • Segmentation • Electromagnetic Simulations • Thermal Simulations • Field Optimization • Biological Effect Determination • Thermometry and Experimental Validation • Tissue Parameters • Related Treatments • Challenges • Conclusions 1