Safety and quality issues in fish processing

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Safety and quality issues in fish processing
Related titles from Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition list: Fish drying and smoking (ISBN: 1 56676 668 0) This book brings together the work of an international group of fish technologists, food scientists, microbiologists, chemists and engineers. It will provide readers with an understanding of the physical, chemical and biological factors influencing the functionality of the product at every stage from harvest to consumption. Seafood safety, processing and biotechnology (ISBN: 1 56676 573 0) The 25 reports in this book were prepared by international food scientists specialising in seafood. Topics include seafood quality, toxicity, analytical techniques, HACCP, modelling, seafood microbiology, and new food and non-food uses of seafood. Food processing technology: principles and practice Second edition (ISBN: 1 85573 533 4) The first edition of Food processing technology was quickly adopted as the standard text by many food science and technology courses. The publication of this completely revised new edition is set to confirm the position of this textbook as the best single- volume introduction to food manufacturing technologies available. New chapters include computer control of processing, novel ‘minimal’ technologies including processing using high pressures or pulsed electric fields, ohmic heating and an extended chapter on modified atmosphere packaging. Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: • visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com • contacting Customer Services (email: sales@woodhead-publishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext. 30; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel. and fax as above; e-mail: francisd@woodhead-publishing.com). Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in.
Safety and quality issues in fish processing Edited by H. Allan Bremner
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC 2000 Corporate Blvd, NW Boca Raton FL 33431 USA First published 2002, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2002, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited or CRC Press LLC for such copying. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 1 85573 552 0 CRC Press ISBN 0-8493-1540-9 CRC Press order number: WP1540 Cover design by The ColourStudio Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Markyate, Hertfordshire (macfarl@aol.com) Typeset by MHL Typesetting Limited, Coventry, Warwickshire Printed by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall, England
Contents List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 H. Allan Bremner, Allan Bremner and Associates, Mount Coolum Part 1 Ensuring safe products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 HACCP in the fisheries industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 D. R. Ward, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2 HACCP principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.3 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.4 Developing and implementing HACCP plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.5 Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.6 The new millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3 HACCP in practice: the Thai fisheries industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 S. Suwanrangsi, Thai Department of Fisheries, Bangkok 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.2 The development of HACCP systems in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.3 HACCP methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.4 Common problems in HACCP implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.5 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
vi Contents 3.6 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Appendix: Documented HACCP-based Quality Program . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4 HACCP in the fish canning industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 L. Ababouch, FAO, Rome 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 4.2 The canning process, safety and spoilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 4.3 The regulatory context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4.4 Hazards in fish canning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4.5 Spoilage of canned fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.6 The application of GMP in the fish canning industry . . . . . . . . 43 4.7 The application of HACCP in the fish canning industry . . . . . 43 4.8 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.9 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.10 References and further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5 Improving the control of pathogens in fish products . . . . . . . . . . . 54 L. Nilsson and L. Gram, Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Lyngby 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 5.2 Microbial health hazards in fish products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.3 Traditional preservation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.4 New preservation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.5 Biological preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 5.6 Use of lactic acid bacteria for food fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.7 Non-thermal food processing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.8 Conclusion and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 6 Identifying allergens in fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 S. Yamada and E. Zychlinsky, Hitachi Chemical Diagnostics Inc., Mountain View; and H. Nolte, University of Copenhagen 6.1 Introduction: the pattern of fish allergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 6.2 Materials and methodology for identifying allergens: the case of tuna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 6.3 Analyzing results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 6.4 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 6.5 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7 Identifying heavy metals in fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 J. Oehlenschla¨ger, Institute for Fishery Technology and Quality, Hamburg 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 7.2 Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Contents vii 7.3 Lead ....................................................... 100 7.4 Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7.5 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 7.6 Zinc ....................................................... 105 7.7 Tin ....................................................... 105 7.8 Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 7.9 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.10 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 8 Fishborne zoonotic parasites: epidemiology, detection and elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 K. D. Murrell, Danish Centre for Experimental Parasitology, Frederiksberg 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 8.2 Parasites of marine fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 8.3 Parasites of freshwater fish: nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 8.4 Parasites of freshwater fish: cestodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 8.5 Parasites of freshwater fish: trematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 8.6 Prevention and decontamination: marine fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 8.7 Prevention and decontamination: freshwater fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 8.8 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 8.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 9 Rapid detection of seafood toxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 G. Palleschi, D. Moscone, L. Micheli and D. Botta, University of Rome 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 9.2 Immunosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 9.3 Domoic acid detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 9.4 Okadaic acid detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 9.5 Saxitoxin detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 9.6 Prototype evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 9.7 Conclusion and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 9.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 9.9 Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Part II Analysing quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 10 Understanding the concepts of quality and freshness in fish . . 163 H. Allan Bremner, Allan Bremner and Associates, Mount Coolum 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 10.2 Quality and freshness as concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 10.3 Other approaches to concepts of quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 10.4 Quality as a driving force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
viii Contents 10.5 Freshness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 10.6 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 10.7 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 11 The meaning of shelf-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 A. Barbosa, University of Porto; H. Allan Bremner, Allan Bremner and Associates, Mount Coolum; and P. Vaz-Pires, University of Porto 11.1 Introduction: the concept of shelf-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 11.2 The beginning of shelf-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 11.3 The end of shelf-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 11.4 Are there several shelf-lives? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 11.5 Do we need the expression shelf-life? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 11.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 11.7 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 11.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 12 Modelling and predicting the shelf-life of seafood . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 P. Dalgaard, Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Lyngby 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 12.2 Modelling of shelf-life and quality attributes determined in product storage trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 12.3 Modelling of microbial kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 12.4 Validation of shelf-life models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 12.5 Application software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 12.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 13 The role of enzymes in determining seafood color, flavor and texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 N. Haard, University of California, Davis 13.1 Introduction: the importance of enzymes in postmortem fish ....................................................... 220 13.2 Enzymes in fish myosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 13.3 Postmortem physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 13.4 Biochemical changes in post-rigor muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 13.5 Enzymes and seafood color and appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 13.6 Enzymes and seafood flavor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 13.7 Enzymes and seafood texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 13.8 The use of enzymes in seafood processing and quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 13.9 Enzymes as seafood processing aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 13.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Contents ix 14 Understanding lipid oxidation in fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 I. P. Ashton, Unilever R&D, Sharnbrook 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 14.2 The role of lipolysis in rancidity development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 14.3 Lipid oxidation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.4 Methods to control lipid oxidation and off-flavour development in fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 14.5 The direct application of antioxidant(s) to fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 14.6 Modification of the diet of farmed fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 14.7 Modified atmosphere and vacuum packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 14.8 The effects of freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 14.9 Conclusion and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 14.10 Sources of further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 14.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 14.12 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Part III Improving quality within the supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 15 Quality chain management in fish processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 M. Frederiksen, Danish Institute of Fisheries Research, Lyngby 15.1 Introduction: the fish supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 15.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 15.3 Organising quality chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 15.4 An open price settling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 15.5 Quality assurance systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 15.6 Maintaining the cold chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 15.7 Product traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 15.8 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 15.9 Organising a chain management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 15.10 A common chain management philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 15.11 Communication and cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 15.12 Developing quality chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 15.13 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 15.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 16 New non-thermal techniques for processing seafood . . . . . . . . . . 308 M. Gudmundsson and H. Hafsteinsson, Technological Institute of Iceland, Reykjavik 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 16.2 The potential application of high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 16.3 Effect on microbial growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 16.4 Effect on seafood quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 16.5 Other uses of high pressure and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 16.6 The potential application of high-intensity pulsed electric fields (PEF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
x Contents 16.7 Effect on microbial growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 16.8 Effect on seafood quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 16.9 Future trends in PEF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 16.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 16.11 Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 17 Lactic acid bacteria in fish preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 G. M. Hall, Loughborough University 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 17.2 The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 17.3 Inhibitory effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 17.4 Probiotic effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 17.5 LAB fermentation of foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 17.6 LAB fermentation of fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 17.7 LAB in ensilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 17.8 LAB fermentation of food fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 17.9 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 17.10 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 17.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 18 Fish drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 P. E. Doe, University of Tasmania, Hobart 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 18.2 The drying process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 18.3 Spoilage of smoked, cured and dried fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 18.4 Water activity and its significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 18.5 Drying methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 18.6 Dried and cured fish products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 18.7 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 18.8 Quality assurance and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 18.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 19 Quality management of stored fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 E. Martinsdo´ttir, Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories, Reykjavik 19.1 Introduction: quality indices for fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 19.2 Guidelines for sensory evaluation of fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 19.3 Sensory evaluation of fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 19.4 Developing a quality index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 19.5 Using quality indices in storage management and production planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 19.6 Keeping fish under different storage conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 19.7 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 19.9 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Contents xi 20 Maintaining the quality of frozen fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 N. Hedges, Unilever R&D, Sharnbrook 20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 20.2 Frozen supply chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 20.3 Freezing of fish tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 20.4 Texture and flavour changes on frozen storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 20.5 Texture changes on frozen storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 20.6 Flavour changes on frozen storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 20.7 Pre-freezing factors influencing storage stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 20.8 The effect of freezing rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 20.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 20.10 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 20.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 20.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 21 Measuring the shelf-life of frozen fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 H. Rehbein, Institute of Fishery Technology and Fish Quality, Hamburg 21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 21.2 Deterioration in frozen fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 21.3 Indicators of deterioration in frozen fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 21.4 Biochemical indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 21.5 Physical indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 21.6 Sensory assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 21.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 21.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 22 Enhancing returns from greater utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 A. Gildberg, Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Tromsø 22.1 Introduction: the range of byproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 22.2 Physical products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 22.3 Products from enzymatic modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 22.4 Functional and pharmaceutical byproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 22.5 Useful enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 22.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 22.7 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 22.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 23 Species identification in processed seafoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 C. G. Sotelo and R. I. Pe´rez-Martı´n, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas, Vigo 23.1 Introduction: the importance of species identification . . . . . . . . 450 23.2 The problem of species identification in seafood products . . . 451 23.3 The use of biomolecules as species markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
xii Contents 23.4 The use of DNA for species identification: DNA integrity and the effect of processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 23.5 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 23.6 Methods not requiring a previous knowledge of the sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 23.7 Methods using sequence information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 23.8 Future trends: rapid methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 23.9 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 23.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 24 Multivariate spectrometric methods for determining quality attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 B. M. Jørgensen, Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Lyngby 24.1 Introduction to multivariate spectroscopic methods . . . . . . . . . . 475 24.2 Near-infrared (NIR)spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 24.3 Fluorescence spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 24.4 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sprectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . 484 24.5 Future trends and sources and further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 24.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Index ....................................................... 495
Contributors Chapters 1 and 10 Chapter 2 Professor H. Allan Bremner Donn R. Ward Allan Bremner and Associates Professor and Associate Head 21 Carrock Court N.C. State University Mount Coolum College of Agriculture and Life Queensland 4573 Sciences Australia Department of Food Science Box 7624 Tel/Fax: +61(0)7 5446 2560 Raleigh NC 27695 E-mail: bremqual1@optus.net.com.au USA Formerly at Tel: +1 919 515 2951 Danish Institute for Fisheries Fax: +1 919 515 4694 Research E-mail: Donn_Ward@ncsu.edu Department of Seafood Research Building 221 Søltofts Plads Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby Chapter 3 Denmark Ms Sirilak Suwanrangsi Special Exchange Projects Officer E-mail: hab@dfu.min.dk (Thailand) Fish, Seafood and Production Division Canadian Food Inspection Agency 59 Camerot Drive Nepean
xiv Contributors Ontario Mountain View Canada K1A 0H9 CA 94043 USA Tel: +1 613 225 2342 (ext. 4541) Fax: +1 613 228 6648 E-mail: yamada17@earthlink.net E-mail: suwanrangs@inspection.gc.ca H. Nolte Department of Internal Medicine Asthma and Allergy Unit Chapter 4 University of Copenhagen Lahsen Ababouch Denmark Chief FIIU F-608 FAO Chapter 7 Rome J. Oehlenschla¨ger Italy Institute for Fishery Technology and Fish Quality Tel: +39 06 5705 4057 Federal Research Centre for Fisheries Fax: +39 06 5705 5188 Palmaille 9 E-mail: Lahsen.Ababouch@fao.org D-22767 Hamburg Germany Tel: +49 40 38905 151 Chapter 5 Fax: +49 40 38905 262 L. Nilsson and L. Gram E-mail: oehlenschlaeger.ibt@bfa- Danish Institute for Fisheries fisch.de Research Department of Seafood Research Søltofts Plads, Building 221 Chapter 8 Technical University of Denmark K. D. Murrell DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby WHO/FAO Collaborating Centre Denmark for Emerging Parasitic Zoonoses Danish Centre for Experimental Tel: +45 45 25 49 21 Parasitology Fax: +45 45 88 47 74 The Royal Veterinary and E-mail: lni@dfu.min.dk Agricultural University Dyrlaegevej 100 DK-1870 Frederiksberg C Denmark Chapter 6 S. Yamada and E. Zychlinsky Tel: +45 35 28 27 75 Hitachi Chemical Diagnostics, Inc. Fax: +45 35 28 27 74 630 Clyde Court E-mail: kdm@kvl.dk
Contributors xv Chapter 9 Professor Paulo Vaz-Pires ICBAS – Insituto de Cieˆncias G. Palleschi, D. Moscone, L. Micheli Biome´dicas de Abel Salazar and D. Botta Largo Prof. Abel Salazar, 2 Dipartimento di Scienze e 4099-003 Porto Technologie Chimiche Portugal Universita` di Roma ‘Tor Vergata’ Via della Ricerca Scientifica Tel: +351 222 062 272 00133 Roma Fax: +351 222 062 232 Italy E-mail: vazpires@icbas.up.pt Tel: +39 06 72594337 Fax: +39 06 72594328 E-mail: Giuseppe.Palleschi@uni Chapter 12 roma2.it Paw Dalgaard Danish Institute for Fisheries Research (DIFRES) Chapter 11 Department of Seafood Research Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Dr Alexandra Barbosa Fisheries ICBAS – Insituto de Cieˆncias DTU Biome´dicas de Abel Salazar Building 221 Largo Prof. Abel Salazar, 2 DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby 4099-003 Porto Denmark Portugal Tel: +45 45 25 25 66 Tel: +351 222 062 272 E-mail: pad@dfu.min.dk Fax: +351 220 622 232 E-mail: octopus@icbas.up.pt Professor H. Allan Bremner Chapter 13 Allan Bremner and Associates Norman F. Haard Formerly at Institute of Marine Resources Danish Institute for Fisheries Department of Food Science and Research Technology Department of Seafood Research University of California Building 221 Søltofts Plads Davis Technical University of Denmark CA 95616 DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby USA Denmark Tel: +1 530 752 2507 E-mail: hab@dfu.min.dk Fax: +1 530 752 4759 E-mail: nfhaard@ucdavis.edu
xvi Contributors Chapter 14 Chapter 17 I.P. Ashton George M. Hall Unilever R&D Department of Chemical Engineering Colworth House Loughborough University Sharnbrook Leicestershire LE11 3TU Beds MK44 1LQ England England Tel: +44 (0) 1509 222 517 E-mail: ian.ashton@unilever.com Fax: +44 (0) 1509 223 923 E-mail: G.M.Hall@lboro.ac.uk Chapter 15 Chapter 18 M. Frederiksen Danish Institute for Fisheries Peter E. Doe Research (DIFRES) School of Engineering Department of Seafood Research University of Tasmania Building 221 Søltofts Plads GPO Box 252-65 Technical University of Denmark Hobart DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby Australia 7001 Denmark Tel: +61 3 6226 2129 Tel: +45 45 88 33 22 Fax: +61 3 6226 7863 Fax: +45 45 88 47 74 E-mail: Peter.Doe@utas.edu.au E-mail: maf@dfu.min.dk Chapter 19 Chapter 16 E. Martinsdo´ttir M. Gudmundsson and H. Hafsteinsson Project Manager Technological Institute of Iceland Research and Development Division (MATRA) Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories Keldnaholt P.O. Box 1405 IS-112 Reykjavik IS-121 Reykjavik Iceland Iceland Tel: +354 570 71 00 Tel: +354 5620240 Fax: +354 570 71 11 Fax: +354 5620740 E-mail: magnusg@iti.is E-mail: emilia@rf.is E-mail: hannes.hafsteinsson@iti.is
Contributors xvii Chapter 20 Chapter 23 N. Hedges Dr Carmen G. Soleto and Dr Ricardo Unilever R&D I. Pere´z-Martı´n Colworth House Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas Sharnbrook Eduardo Cabello 6 Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ 36208 Vigo England Spain Tel: +44 (0) 1234 781781 Tel: +34 986 214471 E-mail: nick.hedges@unilever.com Fax: +34 986 292762 E-mail: carmen@iim.csic.es Chapter 21 Chapter 24 H. Rehbein Institute for Fishery Technology and Bo M. Jørgensen Fish Quality Danish Institute for Fisheries Federal Research Centre for Fisheries Research (DIFRES) Palmaille 9 Department of Seafood Research D-22767 Hamburg Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Germany Fisheries DTU Tel: +49 40 38905 167 Building 221 Fax: +49 40 38905 262 2800 Kgs. Lyngby E-mail: rehbein.ibt@bfa-fisch.de Denmark Tel: +45 45252566 E-mail: boj@dfu.min.dk Chapter 22 Asbjorn Gildberg Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Ltd. N-9005 Tromsø Norway Tel: +47 77 62 90 00 Fax: +47 77 62 91 00 E-mail: asbjorn.gildberg@fiskforsk. norut.no
1 Introduction H. Allan Bremner, Allan Bremner and Associates, Mount Coolum Fish is an exceptionally important component of the human diet and an enormous industry exists to provide a huge variety of consumer products in which fish is a major component. These offerings range from whole fish, large and small, to pieces of fish such as cuts and fillets, to canned fish in a multitude of forms, to dried and cured products, to fish oils and extracts, to frozen portions and complete meals through to reformed and gelled products. The list is enormous, the variety even within one product type is extensive and the range of species used as food runs well into the thousands. Each of these variations and combinations presents a huge matrix of possibilities, opportunities and problems. Over the last 80 or so years, fish technologists and scientists have been endeavouring to draw some general rules from observation and experimentation on fish and fish products to control and predict their properties under a vast variety of circumstances. The two main driving themes for these efforts have been in safety and quality – expressed mostly in terms of measurable properties. This volume picks up these driving themes to cover major issues in safety and quality that are not only important topics of investigation relevant to industry today but that will continue to be important into the future. Each author is an expert in their own particular field and they have summed up the situation to provide a current benchmark of existing knowledge. In addition they have pointed to solutions to problems, where they exist, and have also indicated current gaps in the knowledge base and described research and investigations required to capitalise and expand on this base. In many instances they have described how new understandings, approaches and technologies will have impact and thus effect change in the way operations are carried out to provide better, safer and more stable products with greater surety than previously. It has also been important to describe how one area may relate to another, for example