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Handel und Internationales Marketing / Retailing and International Marketing Edited by Professor Dr. Prof. h.c. Bernhard Swoboda Professor Dr. Thomas Foscht
The book series focuses on the fields of Retailing and International Marketing. The- se two areas represent the research fields of the editors—each of them as a single research area, but also in combination. Both of these research areas are widely understood. Consequently, the series provi- des a platform for the publication of doctoral theses and habilitations, conference proceedings and edited books, as well as related methodological issues that encom- pass the focus of the series. The series is broad in the sense that it covers academic works in the area of consumer-oriented marketing as well as the area of market- oriented management. In addition to academic works recommended by the editors, the book series also welcomes other academic contributions. These may be submitted to the editors and will be published in the book series after a positive assessment. Edited By Professor Dr. Prof. h.c. Bernhard Swoboda, Universität Trier, Germany Professor Dr. Thomas Foscht, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Austria
Christoph Schröder The Replication of Retail Fashion Formats into Foreign Countries A Qualitative Analysis With a foreword by Univ.-Professor Dr. Prof. h.c. Bernhard Swoboda
Dr. Christoph Schröder Trier, Germany Dissertation Universität Trier, 2014 ISBN 978-3-658-07540-8 ISBN 978-3-658-07541-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-07541-5 The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. Library of Congress Control Number: 2014953863 Springer Gabler © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, compu- ter software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or schol- arly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal re- sponsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer Gabler is a brand of Springer DE. Springer DE is part of Springer Science+Business Media. www.springer-gabler.de
Foreword With the process of internationalization of retail and vertically integrated firms gaining momentum since the 1990s, retailing is more and more becoming an international industry. Indeed, many of the world’s prominent retailers already derive a significant proportion of their sales from international operations. This occurs in particular for leading fashion retailers and verticals (e.g., Inditex, adidas, Tommy Hilfiger, or LVMH) in the second largest retail sector in most economies. Those firms face spe- cific challenges when going abroad, which are not relevant if a retailer works in its home country only. In particular, they have to decide on the design of retail format elements, what is known as an important success driver. They may transfer their format elements unchanged or may adapt those elements. One successful strategy is known to be an unchanged format replication, which is linked to the fashion sector and which is analyzed in the present study. The study by Dr. Christoph Schröder aims to answer three important questions in the research on replication strategy: Are different format replication strategies present and successful in a retail sector which is said to always transfer format elements unchanged? How do fashion firms design format elements (culture, marketing and supply-chain processes, and offers) abroad and which of the elements represent core format elements, which are transferred unchanged, and which represent peripheral for- mat elements, which are allowed to vary in different countries? Whether replication of retail format elements is stable over time and in different countries. All three topics are under-researched in the literature on format transfer and are ana- lyzed in the present dissertation based on theoretical propositions as well as empiri- cal results based on over 20 leading fashion firms from western countries. The re- sults underline the importance of two different successful replication strategies, they show various new insights into how format elements (culture, processes, and offers) are characterized as core and peripheral elements when transferred abroad, and fi- nally provide an overview on changes in the replication of retail format elements as well as on strategies over a period of five years and in two culturally different but ac- tually major fashion markets, namely China and France. With his work Dr. Christoph Schröder makes an important contribution to internation- al retailing and international business research. He advances knowledge on interna- tional retailers’ and vertically integrated firms’ core decisions and disentangles the
VI Foreword interrelation of important format transfer elements in foreign countries. On the one hand, his work impresses with the extent of attention paid to the extensive literature review and to the conceptualization in a difficult field of research. On the other hand, he has developed a unique sample – questioning C-level executives of over 20 lead- ing firms in their headquarters all over the world twice in five years – and derives val- uable insights for future research as well as for retailing expansion managers. Finally, his present dissertation addresses one of the core research fields of my chair in Trier. I am particularly pleased with Dr. Christoph Schröder work as he presents the twelfth dissertation at my chair for Marketing & Retailing at the University of Trier. I am glad that Dr. Christoph Schröder has successfully finished his dissertation project during intense years of working on the dissertation on one side and on his career in the world’s number one business software provider on the other side. At the end of this time he is able to present this valuable piece of work. I thank Dr. Schröder for work- ing together and I wish him all the best for his future professional endeavors as well as for his private life. Univ.-Professor Dr. Prof. h.c. Bernhard Swoboda
Acknowledgements A doctoral thesis can be compared to climbing a mountain, in which under maximum effort, an unimaginably long and tedious way is to be completed. This can only suc- ceed if the person is driven by a deep motivation to reach the top. The completion of my doctoral dissertation has been a long journey and like climbing a mountain there are more and less challenging sections. It is true that life does not stand still, nor wait until you are finished and have time to manage it. Very much has happened and changed in the time I have been involved with this project, or as some of my dear friends have so affectionately referred to it “The Paper.” This doctoral thesis has been completed also thanks to many persons who guided me, contributed with suggestions, thoughts, and constructive criticisms. I take there- fore the occasion to briefly mention them here. First and foremost, I am greatly indebted to my supervisor Univ.-Prof. Dr. Prof. h.c. Bernhard Swoboda. He guided me during my researches, and has been very availa- ble and patient. His professional knowledge and constant support helped me proceed throughout my studies. I appreciate all his contributions of time and ideas to make my Ph.D. experience productive and stimulating. I also would like to thank Univ.-Prof. Dr. Walter Schertler for taking over the second opinion of my thesis. I appreciate that Prof. Dr. Matthias Wolz agree to chair the de- fense committee. Two persons I would like to thank in particular. Without them the thesis would not have been possible. I owe a great debt of gratitude to Peter Kabuth who opened me the doors to professionally engage within one of the largest software companies in the world. I would also like to thank in particular Achim Schneider as being my men- tor and friend during and beyond the time of the thesis. The guidance and support of both colleagues could not have been better and earn my deepest appreciation. Several people helped me in a way or another during these years. Therefore I take the occasion to thank, in no particular order, Andrey Hoursanov and Dr. Dieter Scheerer who constantly asked for a “status”. Gregor Surnin and Harun Morkramer provided me with access to electronic libraries. My recent boss Mark Ledbetter de- serves special thanks due to the thorough support in the last three years. Further- more, dozens of individuals helped me during this time and those who did please feel addressed as well. Furthermore, I would like to thank my colleagues at the chair for Marketing and Re- tailing at Trier University. I have had the opportunity and pleasure to get to know all
VIII Acknowledgements “generations” of research associates at Professor Swoboda’s chair so far and I would like to thank all of them for their support and the joint fun. Thank you, Dr. Stefan Els- ner, Dr. Frank Hälsig, Dr. Martin Jager, Dr. Markus Meierer, Lukas Morbe, Dr. Edith Olejnik, Dr. Karin Pennemann, Cathrin Puchert, Dr. Sandra Sommer, Dr. Judith Wal- ter, Dr. Bettina Weimann and Julia Weindel. Additionally, I would like to thank Ursula Fassbender as being the “good soul” of the chair and I appreciate her emotional sup- port whenever I was onsite. My deepest thanks and apologies go to my wife Kristin. Through her love, patience, support, sacrifices and unwavering belief in me, I have been able to complete this long dissertation journey. She is my biggest fan and supporter. She has taken care of whatever needed tending to without complaining, just so I could focus on completing my thesis. She has patiently endured many, many long hours alone while I worked on my dissertation. At the same time, she has also given me so many happy and beautiful memories throughout this journey. There are no words that can express my gratitude and appreciation for all you have done and been for me. As I ramble, I still have not found the words that describe or express how I feel for this woman and what her presence in my life has meant. She loves me like no one else has and has changed me for the better. Thank you with all my heart and soul. I love you and am forever indebted to you for giving me life, your love, your heart, and most importantly Emily our bundle of joy. Your complete and unconditional love carries me always through. Of course no acknowledgments would be complete without giving thanks to my par- ents. Both have instilled many admirable qualities in me and given me love and a good foundation with which to meet life. They have taught me about hard work and self-respect, about persistence and about how to be independent. I dedicate this doctoral thesis to my beloved family. Christoph Schröder
Table of Contents Foreword .................................................................................................................... V Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. VII List of Figures .......................................................................................................... XIII List of Tables ............................................................................................................ XV List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ XIX Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 A. Focus and relevance of the study ......................................................................... 1 B. Structure of the study ............................................................................................ 7 Chapter 2: State of research and specification of objectives ......................... 9 A. Definitions ............................................................................................................. 9 B. Literature review ................................................................................................. 15 I. Introduction ................................................................................................... 15 II. Basic international strategies of retail firms ................................................... 16 1. Basic strategy typologies ........................................................................ 16 2. Format transfer ....................................................................................... 26 3. Success and failure ................................................................................ 47 4. Context factors ....................................................................................... 54 III. Standardization and adaptation of retail format elements ............................. 58 IV. Flexible format replication ............................................................................. 75 C. Identified research gaps and specification of objectives for the replication of retail fashion formats ..................................................................... 87
X Table of Contents Chapter 3: Theoretical foundation and conceptual framework .................... 95 A. Comparison of theoretical approaches to explain format replication ................... 95 B. Theoretical foundation ........................................................................................ 99 I. Contingency and configuration approach ...................................................... 99 1. Overview................................................................................................. 99 2. Contingency approach .......................................................................... 100 3. Configuration approach ........................................................................ 102 4. Critics of the contingency and configuration approaches ..................... 109 II. Format replication theory ............................................................................ 110 1. Overview............................................................................................... 110 2. Replication organization ....................................................................... 111 3. Replication of core and peripheral format elements ............................. 116 4. Critics of format replication theory ........................................................ 118 III. Learning and flexible format replication theories ......................................... 120 1. Overview............................................................................................... 120 2. Knowledge theories .............................................................................. 122 3. Flexible format replication ..................................................................... 128 4. Critics of learning and flexible format replication theories ..................... 131 C. Conceptualization and propositions .................................................................. 131 I. Conceptual framework ................................................................................ 131 II. Specification of successful format transfer strategies ................................. 134 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 134 2. Patterns and context factors as the basis of format transfer strategies .............................................................................................. 135 3. Success of format transfer strategies ................................................... 145 III. Specification of the design of core and peripheral format elements ............ 148 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 148 2. Design of the retail format..................................................................... 148 3. Format elements in the context of different countries ........................... 152 4. Format elements in the context of different format transfer strategies .............................................................................................. 156
Table of Contents XI IV. Changes in strategy over time .................................................................... 158 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 158 2. Different strategy changes over time .................................................... 159 3. Format element changes over time ...................................................... 160 4. Format element changes in different countries over time ..................... 163 Chapter 4: Empirical study of the fashion industry ..................................... 167 A. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 167 B. Sample design .................................................................................................. 168 C. Measurement: in general and country specific .................................................. 172 I. Overview ..................................................................................................... 172 II. Retail format elements and strategy ........................................................... 172 III. Context factors ............................................................................................ 175 IV. Success ...................................................................................................... 176 D. Method: Qualitative research ............................................................................ 177 E. Results of the empirical study ........................................................................... 180 I. Introduction ................................................................................................. 180 II. Successful format transfer strategies .......................................................... 180 1. Identification of patterns and context factors ........................................ 180 2. Identification of format transfer strategies ............................................. 188 3. Contrast of identified format transfer strategies with IR strategies as an excursion .................................................................... 191 4. Success of the identified format transfer strategies .............................. 193 III. Design of core and peripheral format elements .......................................... 196 1. Design of retail culture, retail offers and background processes in general .............................................................................................. 196 2. Design of retail culture, retail offers and background processes in France and China ............................................................................. 199 3. Design of retail culture, retail offers and background processes within format transfer strategies ............................................................ 205
XII Table of Contents IV. Changes in strategy and format elements over time ................................... 211 1. Changes in format transfer strategies over time ................................... 211 2. Different changes in format elements in general over time ................... 212 3. Different changes in format elements in countries over time ................ 217 Chapter 5: Key findings, implications and limitations ................................. 221 A. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 221 B. Implications for research and practice .............................................................. 223 I. Theoretical implications .............................................................................. 223 1. Overall results....................................................................................... 223 2. Successful format transfer strategies ................................................... 226 3. Design of core and peripheral format elements .................................... 227 4. Changes in format transfer strategies and format elements over time and in different countries ....................................................... 231 II. Managerial implications .............................................................................. 234 III. Limitations and further research.................................................................. 236 References .............................................................................................................. 239 Appendix.................................................................................................................. 267 Interview guide ........................................................................................................ 267
List of Figures Figure 3–1: Foundational model of contingency .................................................. 101 Figure 3–2: Configuration approach .................................................................... 102 Figure 3–3: Different equifinalities ....................................................................... 107 Figure 3–4: Learning to replicate ......................................................................... 114 Figure 3–5: Replicators located in the integration-responsiveness framework ......................................................................................... 115 Figure 3–6: Exploration and exploitation of formats ............................................. 116 Figure 3–7: Theoretical framework of the Uppsala model as a basic approach ........................................................................................... 123 Figure 3–8: Shift of knowledge sharing between headquarters and subsidiaries ....................................................................................... 124 Figure 3–9: Learning curve effects resulting from exploration and exploitation........................................................................................ 127 Figure 3–10: Research framework ......................................................................... 132 Figure 3–11: Replicators in the IR-framework........................................................ 144
List of Tables Table 1–1: FDI by SWFs by sector/industry, cumulative flows, 2005-2011 ............ 3 Table 1–2: Comparison of retail industry profiles .................................................... 4 Table 1–3: Top global fashion retailers ................................................................... 5 Table 2–1: Studies of the classification of retail firms ........................................... 19 Table 2–2: International strategic orientation of retail firms .................................. 21 Table 2–3: Studies of the classification of fashion firms ....................................... 26 Table 2–4: Studies of retail offers ......................................................................... 28 Table 2–5: Studies of retail offers in the fashion industry ..................................... 29 Table 2–6: Studies of the transfer of retail offers .................................................. 31 Table 2–7: Studies of background processes ....................................................... 35 Table 2–8: Studies of background processes in the fashion industry ................... 37 Table 2–9: Studies of the transfer of background processes ................................ 39 Table 2–10: Studies of retail culture ....................................................................... 44 Table 2–11: Studies of retail culture in the fashion industry .................................... 46 Table 2–12: Studies of the success and failures of retail firms ............................... 52 Table 2–13: Studies of the success and failures of fashion firms ........................... 54 Table 2–14: Studies of the context factors of format transfer strategies ................. 58 Table 2–15: Standardization versus adaptation of retail formats ............................ 71 Table 2–16: Standardization versus adaptation of retail fashion formats................ 75 Table 2–17: Studies of the replication (of retail formats)......................................... 85 Table 2–18: Studies of the replication of fashion-specific retail formats ................. 86 Table 3–1: Matrix of configurations ..................................................................... 103 Table 3–2: Comparison of contingency and configuration approaches .............. 104
XVI List of Tables Table 3–3: Concept of the Arrow core ................................................................ 112 Table 3–4: Possible core and peripheral program and process elements in retailing .......................................................................... 118 Table 3–5: Organizational characteristics of format transfer strategies .............. 144 Table 3–6: Possible retail format elements ......................................................... 150 Table 4–1: Examined fashion firms in 2009 and 2013 ........................................ 171 Table 4–2: Measurement of retail format elements ............................................ 173 Table 4–3: Measurement of basic strategic orientation within the scope of this study I..................................................................................... 174 Table 4–4: Measurement of basic strategic orientation within the scope of this study II.................................................................................... 174 Table 4–5: Examples of barriers to format replication......................................... 175 Table 4–6: Measurement of success .................................................................. 176 Table 4–7: Format replication pattern groups ..................................................... 181 Table 4–8: Format replication pattern groups in France ..................................... 181 Table 4–9: Format replication pattern groups in China ....................................... 181 Table 4–10: Most important context factors for format replication in general........ 183 Table 4–11: Most important context factors for format replication in general ........ 185 Table 4–12: Most important context factors for format replication in France ............ 186 Table 4–13: Most important context factors for format replication in China .......... 187 Table 4–14: Format replication strategies............................................................. 188 Table 4–15: Categorization of format replication strategies in France .................. 190 Table 4–16: Categorization of format replication strategies in China .................... 191 Table 4–17: Manager self-assessment of integration responsiveness ................. 191 Table 4–18: Results of judgments of integration responsiveness ......................... 192 Table 4–19: Results of integration-responsiveness clusters ................................. 192 Table 4–20: Comparison of IR cluster results with format transfer strategies ....... 193
List of Tables XVII Table 4–21: Comparison of format transfer strategies and success ..................... 194 Table 4–22: Retail culture design ......................................................................... 196 Table 4–23: Retail offer design in general ............................................................ 197 Table 4–24: Background process design in general ............................................. 199 Table 4–25: Retail culture design in France and China ........................................ 200 Table 4–26: Retail offer design in France and China ............................................ 201 Table 4–27: Background process design in France and China ............................ 204 Table 4–28: Retail format element design within the scope of a global format extension strategy.................................................................. 206 Table 4–29: Retail format element design within the scope of a transnational competitive position oriented strategy ......................... 208 Table 4–30: Retail format design within the scope of different format replication strategies (degrees of standardization) ........................... 210 Table 4–31: Format replication strategies in 2009 and 2013 ................................ 212 Table 4–32: Changes in retail culture elements over time .................................... 212 Table 4–33: Changes in retail offer elements over time........................................ 214 Table 4–34: Changes in background process elements over time ....................... 215 Table 4–35: Changes in retail format elements depending on format transfer strategies (degrees of standardization) over time ................ 217 Table 4–36: Changes in retail format elements over time in France and China ... 220 Table 5–1: Overview of propositions addressed in the present study ................. 222 Table 5–2: Propositions related to successful format transfer strategies ............ 226 Table 5–3: Propositions related to core and peripheral format element design ...... 229 Table 5–4: Propositions related to changes in format transfer strategies over time and in different countries ................................................... 232
List of Abbreviations A ...................................Adapted Bn. ................................Billion ca. .................................circa CEO ..............................Chief Executive Officer CHN ..............................People’s Republic of China CIO ...............................Chief Information Officer CMO .............................Chief Marketing Officer CRM .............................Customer Relationship Management CSA ..............................Country specific advantage CXO ..............................Chief (Executive, Information, Financial, or Operating) officer Diss. .............................Dissertation DK ................................Denmark DoS ..............................Degree of Standardization e.g. ..............................exempli gratia / for example ERP ..............................Enterprise resource planning ESP ..............................Espagna / Spain et al. .............................et alia/and others etc. ................................et cetera EU ................................European Union F ...................................France FDI ................................Foreign direct investment FFR ..............................Flexible format replication FSA ..............................Firm specific advantage GER ..............................Germany GPN ..............................Global production network GPS ..............................Global purchasing strategy
XX List of Abbreviations i.e. ................................id est / that is IPO ...............................Initial public offering IRC ...............................International retail chain ITA ................................Italy LE .................................Large enterprise m ..................................million MEF ..............................Market Entry Factors MES ..............................Market Entry Strategy MF ................................Manufacturing Mio. ...............................Million MNC .............................Multinational corporation MNE .............................Multinational enterprise MV ...............................Mean value NZL ...............................New Zealand p. .................................page POR ..............................Portugal POS ..............................Point of Sale RBV ..............................resource-based view R&D ..............................Research & Development RI ..................................Retail Internationalization RT .................................Retail S ...................................Standardized SCM .............................Supply Chain Management SME ..............................Small and Medium-sized Enterprise STDEV..........................Standard deviation SVP ..............................Senior Vice President SWE .............................Sweden SWF .............................Sovereign wealth fund
List of Abbreviations XXI UK ................................United Kingdom UNCTAD.......................United Nations Conference on Trade and Development US(A) ............................United States (of America) USD ..............................US Dollar Vol. ..............................Volume vs. . ...............................versus WH ...............................Wholesale # ...................................number % ..................................percent