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Human Anatomy and Physiology

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Human anatomy and physiology is more than just interesting, it is fascinating. To help get the students and instructions involved in the study of this subject, a number of special features are incorporated throughout the lecture note.

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LECTURE NOTES For Nursing Students Human Anatomy and Physiology Nega Assefa Alemaya University Yosief Tsige Jimma University In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education 2003
Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00. Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education. Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the original document. Under no circumstances is it permissible to sell or distribute on a commercial basis, or to claim authorship of, copies of material reproduced from this publication. ©2003 by Nega Assefa and Yosief Tsige All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the author or authors. This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or students and faculty in a health care field.
Human Anatomy and Physiology Preface There is a shortage in Ethiopia of teaching / learning material in the area of anatomy and physicalogy for nurses. The Carter Center EPHTI appreciating the problem and promoted the development of this lecture note that could help both the teachers and students. Human anatomy and physiology is more than just interesting, it is fascinating. To help get the students and instructions involved in the study of this subject, a number of special features are incorporated throughout the lecture note. The lecture note provides a thorough review of human anatomy and physiology applicable to the nurses. It covers all body parts using a systemic approach. Each chapter is designed to aid effective student learning. Each chapter contains: - The Learning objectives: what the students are expected to accomplish upon completion of a particular chapter. - Key concepts: summary of selected key terms included in the chapter. - Illustrations: there will aid the students to achieve a better understanding of the subject matter. i
Human Anatomy and Physiology - Review questions: a cross check to know if the students have come to grasp concepts stated in the chapter. We hope that you enjoy the lecture note of Human Anatomy and Physiology for nurses. Please let us know if you have any comments regarding this lecture note. ii
Human Anatomy and Physiology Acknowledgments We are highly indebted to acknowledge the authors of the reference books we used in preparing this lecture note. We would like to extend our appreciation to the different professionals involved in reviewing this manuscript through its process specially Dr. Yamrot Kinfu, Head, Department of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, AAU. We are also grateful to The Carter Center EPHTI for facilitating the preparation of this lecture note. Our gratitude also goes to the assistance offered by Jimma and Alemaya Universities for facilitating the opportunities and resources utilized to develop the lecture note. iii
Human Anatomy and Physiology Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgement Table of contents List of tables Abbreviations Introduction CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER TWO – CELL CHAPTER THREE – TISSUES AND MEMBRANE CHAPTER FOUR – THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM CHAPTER FIVE – THE SKELETAL SYSTEM CHAPTER SIX – THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM CHAPTER SEVEN – THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CHAPTER EIGHT – THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM CHAPTER NINE – CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM CHAPTER TEN – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM CHAPTER ELEVEN – DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CHAPTER TWELVE – THE URINARY SYSTEM CHAPTER THIRTEEN _ FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE CHAPTER FOURTEEN – THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Glossary Answers to the study questions References iv
Human Anatomy and Physiology List of Tables Table 1.1 Directional terms Table 5. 1 Comparison between bone and cartilage Table 5.2 Divisions of the adult skeleton (206 bones) Table 5.3 Descriptions and functions of Cranial Bones Table 5.4 Descriptions and Functions of Facial bones Table 5.5 Bones of the vertebral column (26 bones) Table 5.6 Upper extremity bones and their function Table 5.7 Bones of the lower extremity and their function Table 5.8 Classifications of joints Table 5.9 Various types of movements by synovial joint Table 6-1 Summary of events in the contraction of a muscle fiber Table 6-2 Head and neck muscles Table 6-3 Trunk muscles Table 6-4 Upper limb muscles Table 6-5 Lower limb muscles Table 7-1 Functions of Major Divisions of the Brain Table 7-2 Effects of the sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems on Selected Organs Table 7-3 Special Sense Organs Table 9-1 The ABO Blood Group System Table 10-1 Breathing Volumes Table 11-1 Chemical Digestion Table 12.1 The main structural components of a nephron and their function. Table 14.1 The Menstrual Cycle Table 14.2 Summary of major reproduction hormones v
Human Anatomy and Physiology Abbreviations Ach: Acetylcholine ACTH: Adrino Cortico Trophic Hormone ADH: Anti di Uretic Hormone ADP: Adenosine Di Phosphate ANS: Autonomic Nervous System ATP: Adenosine Tri Phosphate C: Cervical, cervical vertebrae, (C4 cervical vertebrae 4) cm: Centi meter CNS: Central Nervous System CRH: Corticotropin Releasing Hormone CSF: Cerebro Spinal Fluid DIT: Di Iodo Tyrosine DNA: Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid /d: Per day ECF: Extra Cellular Fluid ER: Endoplasmic Reticulum FSH: Follicular stimulating hormone g: Gram GHIH: Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone GHRH: Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone GI: Gastro Intestinal GnRH: Gondotrophin Releasing Hormone HCG: Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin hormone Hcl: Hydrochloric acid vi
Human Anatomy and Physiology hGH: Human Growth Hormone ICSH: Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone IGF: Insulin like Growth Factors IUD: Intra Uterine Device L: Lumbar, lumbar vertebrae, (L3, lumbar vertebrae 3) l: liter LES: Lower esophageal sphincter LH: Leutinizing Hormone LPH: Lito tropin Hormone m: Meter MIT: Mono Iodo Tyrosine ml.: Mili liter mm: Milli meter P: Phosphate PBI: Protein Bound Iodine H P : Power of Hydrogen PIH: Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone PNS: Peripheral Servous System POMC: Pro-Opio Melano Cortin PRH: Prolactin Releasing Hormone PTH: Para Thyroid Hormone RNA: Ribo Neuclic Acid rRNA: Ribosomal Ribo Neuclic Acid T: Thoracic, thoracic vertebrae, (T1 thoracic vertebrae 1) T3: Tri iodo tyronin T4: Thyroxin 2
Human Anatomy and Physiology TGB: Tyro globulin TRH: Tyro tropin Releasing Hormone TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone UV: Ultra Violet 3
Human Anatomy and Physiology Introduction The course human anatomy and physiology for nurses is designed to help student nurses learn and understand how the human body is organized and function. Equipping the student nurse with the knowledge of anatomy and physiology will further assist the student in understanding what happens and what to do when the body is injured, diseased or placed under stress. This teaching and learning material (lecture note) for nursing students at a diploma level is prepared in line with this concept. Therefore, the students are expected to achieve the following general educational objectives after completion of the course: - Understand and use anatomical terms. - Understand the function of the various organs and their relations with one another. - Know the location of each organ and the important anatomical land marks. - Know the normal structure of the human body in general. - Use the knowledge of anatomy and physiology in nursing practice. 1
Human Anatomy and Physiology CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Learning Objective At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: - Define Anatomy and Physiology - Explain Homeostasis - Describe levels of structural organization of the human body - Discuss directional terms, anatomical position, planes and sections used in Anatomy. - Differentiate body cavities Selected Key terms The following terms are defined in the glossary: Anatomical position Body regions Anatomy Directional terms Appendicular skeleton Homeostasis Axial skeleton Physiology Body cavities Quadrants Body plane 2
Human Anatomy and Physiology 1.1 What are Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is the study of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other. The study of anatomy includes many sub specialties. These are Gross anatomy, Microscopic anatomy, Developmental anatomy and Embryology. Gross anatomy studies body structure with out microscope. Systemic anatomy studies functional relationships of organs within a system whereas Regional anatomy studies body part regionally. Both systemic and regional approaches may be used to study gross anatomy Microscopic anatomy (Histology) requires the use of microscope to study tissues that form the various organs of the body. Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study of how the body and its part work or function. 3
Human Anatomy and Physiology Hence, Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give students a full appreciation and understanding of human body. Homeostasis When structure and function are coordinated the body achieves a relative stability of its internal environment called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits. Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood streams. Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate. 1.2 Level of structural organization of the body The human body has different structural levels of organization, starting with atoms molecules and compounds and increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs and the systems that make up the complete organism. 4
Human Anatomy and Physiology Figure: 1.1 Levels of structural organization of the body (source: Elaine n. MARIEB, (2000), Essentials of human anatomy and physiology, Addison th welsey longman inc., San Francisco, 6 ed) Atoms molecules and compounds: - At its simplest level, the body is composed of atoms. The most common elements in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur. Atoms → Molecule → Compounds. 5
Human Anatomy and Physiology Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction. Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of the body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue. Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities. Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone and tendons. Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve impulses. Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific function. For example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues 6
Human Anatomy and Physiology System: Is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example: Respiratory system contains several organs. Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism. 1.3 Anatomical Terminologies The language of anatomy will probably be unfamiliar to you at first. But once you have understood the basic word roots, combining word forms, prefixes and suffix you will find that anatomical terminologies are not as difficult as you first imagined. 1.3.1. Anatomical Position. Anatomical positions are universally accepted as the starting points for positional references to the body. In anatomical position the subject is standing erect and facing the observer, the feet are together, and the arms are hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward. 7
Human Anatomy and Physiology Figure 1.2 Relative directional terms of the body. (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw nd hill inc, New York, 2 ed, pp 15) 1.3.2 Relative Directional terms Standardized terms of reference are used when anatomists describe the location of the body part. Relative means the location of one part of the body is always described in relation to another part of the body. 8
Human Anatomy and Physiology Table: 1.1 Directional terms (source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed, pp 15) Term Definition and example Superior (cranial) Toward the head. The leg is supper to the foot. Inferior (caudal) Toward the feet. The foot is inferior to the leg. Anterior (ventral) Toward the front part of the body. The nose is anterior to the ears. Posterior (dorsal) Towards the back of the body. The ears are posterior to the nose. Medial Towards the midline of the body. The nose is medial to the eyes. Lateral Away from the midline of the body. The eyes are lateral to the nose. Proximal Toward (nearer) the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb. The shoulder is proximal to the wrist. Distal Away (farther) from the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb. The wrist is distal to the forearm. Superficial Nearer the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the heart. Deep Farther from the surface of the body. The heart is deeper to the ribs. Peripheral Away from the central axis of the body. Peripheral nerves radiate away from the brain and spinal cord. 1.3.3. Body parts Regions The body can generally be described to have areas of: Axial body part: - It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis. 9
Human Anatomy and Physiology Appendicular body part: - It is the part of the body out of the axis line. This includes the upper and lower extremities. It is customary to subdivide the abdominal area into nine regions or more easily in to four quadrants. Figure 1.3 Abdominal sub divisions (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New nd York, 2 ed, pp 17) 1.4 Body planes and sections Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps for further identification of specific areas. 10

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