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Database Systems: The Complete Book- P1

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Database Systems: The Complete Book- P1: Database Systems and Database Design and Application courses offered at the junior, senior and graduate levels in Computer Science departments. Written by well-known computer scientists, this introduction to database systems offers a comprehensive approach, focusing on database design, database use, and implementation of database applications and database management systems

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  1. Database Systems: The Complete Book Hector Garcia-Molina Jeffrey D. Ullman Jennifer Widom Department of Computer Science Stanford University ----An Alon R. Api Book ---- Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  2. About the Authors JEFFREY D. ULLMAN is the Stanford W.Ascherman Professor of Computer Science at Stanford University. He is the author or co-author of 16 books. including Elements of ML Programming (Prentice Hall 1998). His research interests include data min- 1 The Worlds of Database Systems 1 ing. information integration. and electronic education . He is a 1.1 The Evolution of Database Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 member of the National Academy of Engineering; and recipient 1.1.1 Early Database Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 2 of a Guggenheim Fellowship. the Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding 1.1.2 Relational Database Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Educator Award. the SIGMOD Contributions Award. and the 1.1.3 Smaller and Smaller Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Knuth Prize. 1.1.4 Bigger and Bigger Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.5 Client-Server and Multi-Tier Architectures . . . . . . . . 7 1.1.6 Multimedia Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 JENNIFER WIDOM is Associate Professor of Computer Science 1 .1 .7 Information Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 and Electrical Engineering at Stanford University. Her research 1.2 Overview of a Database Management System . . . . . . . . . . . 9 interests include query processing on data streams. data caching 1.2.1 Data-Definition Language Commands . . . . . . . . . . . 10 and replication. semistructured data and XML. and data ware- 1.2.2 Overview of Query Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 housing. She is a former Guggenheim Fellow and has served on 1.2.3 Storage and Buffer Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 numerous program committees. advisory boards. and editorial 1.2.4 Transaction Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 boards. 1.2.5 The Query Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3 Outline of Database-System Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 HECTOR GARCIA-MOLINA is the L . Bosack and S. Lerner Pro- f 1.3.1 Database Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 fessor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, and ! 1.3.2 Database Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Database System Implementatioll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 17 Chair of the Department of Computer Science a t Stanford Uni- 4 1.3.4 Information Integration Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 versity. His research interests include digital libraries, informa- 1.4 Summary of Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 tion integration, and database application on the Internet . He was a recipient of the SIGMOD Innovations Award and is a i 1.3 References for Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 member of PITAC (President's Information-Technology Advisory 2 T h e Entity-Relationship D a t a Model 23 Council). 2.1 Elements of the E/R SIodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Entity Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Entity-Relationship Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Instances of an E/R Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Siultiplicity of Binary E/R Relationships . . . . . . . . . 27 llulti\vay Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Roles in Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 vii Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  3. viii TABLE O F CONTENTS TABLE O F CONTENTS 2.1.9 Attributes on Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.3.2 An Object-Oriented Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2.1.10 Converting Multiway Relationships to Binary . . . . . . . 32 3.3.3 Using Null Values to Combine Relations . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.1.11 Subclasses in the E/R, bfodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3.4 Comparison of Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.1.12 Exercises for Section 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.3.5 Exercises for Section 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2.2 Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4 Functional Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.2.1 Faithfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4.1 Definition of Functional Dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.2.2 Avoiding Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4.2 Keys of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2.2.3 Simplicity Counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4.3 Superkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.2.4 Choosing the Right Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4.4 Discovering Keys for Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.2.5 Picking the Right Kind of Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.4.5 Exercises for Section 3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.2.6 Exercises for Section 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.5 Rules About Functional Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 2.3 The Modeling of Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.5.1 The Splitting/Combi~~ing Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 2.3.1 Classification of Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.5.2 Trivial Functional Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.3.2 Keys in the E/R Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.5.3 Computing the Closure of Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.3.3 Representing Keys in the E/R Model . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.5.4 Why the Closure Algorithm Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.3.4 Single-Value Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.5.5 The Transitive Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.3.5 Referential Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 ' 3.5.6 Closing Sets of Functional Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.3.6 Referential Integrity in E/R Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.5.7 Projecting Functional Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.3.7 Other Kinds of Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.5.8 Exercises for Section 3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.3.8 Exercises for Section 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.6 Design of Relational Database Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.4 WeakEntity Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.6.1 Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.4.1 Causes of Weak Entity Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.6.2 Decomposing Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.4.2 Requirements for Weak Entity Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.6.3 Boyce-Codd Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.4.3 Weak Entity Set Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.6.4 Decomposition into BCNF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.4.4 Exercises for Section 2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.63 Recovering Information from a Decomposition . . . . . . 112 2.5 Summary of Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.6.6 Third Sormal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 2.6 References for Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.6.7 Exercises for Section 3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 3.7 ;\Iultivalued Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 3 T h e Relational D a t a Model 61 3.7.1 Attribute Independence and Its Consequent Redundancy 118 3.1 Basics of the Relational Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.7.2 Definition of Xfultivalued Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.1.1 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.7.3 Reasoning About hlultivalued Dependencies . . . . . . . . 120 3.1.2 Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.7.4 Fourth Sormal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.1.3 Tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.7.5 Decomposition into Fourth Normal Form . . . . . . . . . 123 3.1.4 Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.7.6 Relationships Among Xormal Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3.1.5 Equivalent Representations of a Relation . . . . . . . . . 63 3.7.7 Exercises for Section 3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.1.6 Relation Instances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.8 Summary of Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . 127 3.1.7 Exercises for Section 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.9 References for Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 3.2 From E/R Diagrams to Relational Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.2.1 Fro~n Entity Sets to Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4 Other D a t a Models 131 3.2.2 From E/R Relationships to Relations . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.1 Review of Object-Oriented Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3.2.3 Combining Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.11 The Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3.2.4 Handling Weak Entity Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.1.2 Classes and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.2.5 Exercises for Section 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.1.3 Object Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.3 Converting Subclass Structures to Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.1.4 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.3.1 E/R-Style Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.1.5 Class Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  4. x TABLE OF CONTENTS T-ABLE OF CONTENTS xi 4.2 Introduction to ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.9 References for Chapter 4 . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Object-Oriented Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.2.2 Class Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 5 Relational Algebra 189 4.2.3 Attributes in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 5.1 An Example Database Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 4.2.4 Relationships in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.2 An Algebra of Relational Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 . " 4.2.5 Inverse Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 . 5.2.1 Basics of Relational Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 4.2.6 hfultiplicity of Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 4.2.7 Methods in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.2.2 Set Operations on Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 4.2.8 Types in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 5.2.3 Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 4.2.9 Exercises for Section 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.2.4 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 4.3 Additional ODL Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 5.2.5 Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 4.3.1 Multiway Relationships in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.2.6 Natural Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 4.3.2 Subclasses in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.2.7 Theta-Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 4.3.3 Multiple Inheritance in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 5.2.8 Combining Operations to Form Queries . . . . . . . . . . 201 4.3.4 Extents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 5.2.9 Renaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.3.5 Declaring Keys in ODL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.2.10 Dependent and Independent Operations . . . . . . . . . . 205 4.4 4.3.6 Exercises for Section 4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 From ODL Designs to Relational Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 . 5.2.11 A Linear Notation for Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . 206 4.4.1 Froni ODL Attributes to Relational Attributes . . . . . . 156 5.2.12 Exercises for Section 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 4.4.2 Nonatomic Attributes in Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 5.3 Relational Operations on Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 4.4.3 Representing Set-Valued Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.3.1 Why Bags? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 4.4.4 Representing Other Type Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . 160 5.3.2 Union, Intersection, and Difference of Bags . . . . . . . . 215 4.4.5 Representing ODL Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 5.3.3 Projection of Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 4.4.6 What If There Is No Key? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 5.3.4 Selection on Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 4.4.7 Exercises for Section 4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 5.3.5 Product of Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 4.5 The Object-Relational Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 5.3 6 Joins of Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 4.5.1 From Relations to Object-Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 5.3.7 Exercises for Section 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 4.5.2 Nested Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4.5.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 5.4 Extended Operators of Relational Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 4.5.4 Object-Oriented Versus Object-Relational . . . . . . . . . 170 5.4.1 Duplicate Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 4.5.5 From ODL Designs to Object-Relational Designs . . . . . 172 5.4.2 Aggregation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 4.5.6 Exercises for Section 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 5.4.3 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 4.6 Semistructured Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 5.4.4 The Grouping Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 4.6.1 Motivation for the Semistructured-Data Model . . . . . . 173 5.4.5 Extending the Projection Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 4.6.2 Semistructured Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 5.4.6 The Sorting Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 4.6.3 Information Integration Via Semistructured Data . . . . . 175 5.4.7 Outerjoins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 4.6.4 Exercises for Section 4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 5.4.8 Exercises for Section 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 4.7 XML and Its Data Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 4.7.1 Semantic Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 5.5 Constraints on Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 4.7.2 Well-Formed X1.i L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.5.1 Relational .Algebra as a Constraint Language . . . . . . . 231 4.7.3 Document Type Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 5.5.2 Referential Integrity Constraillts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 4.7.4 Using a DTD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 5.5.3 Additional Constraint Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 4.7.5 -4ttribute Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 5.5.4 Exercises for Section 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 4.7.6 Exercises for Section 4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 5.6 Summary of Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 4.8 Summary of Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 5.7 References for Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  5. $ xii TABLE OF CONTENTS f 5' TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii ! 2 l ii 6 The Database Language SQL 239 6.6.5 Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 6.1 Simple Queries in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 6.6.6 Introduction to Selection of Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 6.1.1 Projection in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 6.6.7 Exercises for Section 6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.1.2 Selection in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 6.7 View Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 6.1.3 Comparison of Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 6.7.1 Declaring Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 6.1.4 Dates and Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.7.2 Querying Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 6.1.5 Null Values and Comparisons Involving N L . . . . . . . 248 UL 6.7.3 Renaming Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 6.1.6 The Truth-Value UNKNOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 6.7.4 Modifying Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 6.1.7 Ordering the Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.51 6.7.5 Interpreting Queries Involving Views . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 6.1.8 Exercises for Section 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 6.7.6 Exercises for Section 6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 6.2 Queries Involving More Than One Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 6.8 Summary of Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 6.2.1 Products and Joins in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 6.9 References for Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 6.2.2 Disambiguating Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 6.2.3 Tuple Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 7 Constraints a n d Triggers 315 6.2.4 Interpreting Multirelation Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 7.1 Keys andForeign Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 6.2.5 Union, Intersection, and Difference of Queries . . . . . . . 260 7.1.1 Declaring Primary Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 6.2.6 Exercises for Section 6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 7.1.2 Keys Declared ?VithUNIQUE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 6.3 Subqueries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 7.1.3 Enforcing Key Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 6.3.1 Subqucries that Produce Scalar Values . . . . . . . . . . . 264 7.1.4 Declaring Foreign-Key Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 6.3.2 Conditions Involving Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 7.1.5 Maintaining Referential Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 6.3.3 Conditions Involving Tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 7.1.6 Deferring the Checking of Constraints . . . . . . . . . . .323 6.3.4 Correlated Subqueries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 7.1.7 Exercises for Section 7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 6.3.5 Subqueries in F O Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 RM 7.2 Constraints on Attributes and Tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 6.3.6 SQL Join Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 7.2.1 Kot-Null Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 6.3.7 Xatural Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 7.2.2 Attribute-Based C E K Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 HC 6.3.8 Outerjoins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 7.2.3 Tuple-Based C E K Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 HC 6.3.9 Exercises for Section 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 7.2.4 Exercises for Section 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 6.4 Fn11-Relation Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 7.3 ?\Iodification of Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 6.4.1 Eliminating Duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 7.3.1 Giving Names to Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 6.4.2 Duplicates in Unions, Intersections, and Differences . . . 278 7.3.2 Altering Constraints on Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 6.4.3 Grouping and Aggregation in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 7.3.3 Exercises for Section 7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 6.4.4 Aggregation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 7.4 Schema-Level Constraints and Triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 6.4.5 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 7.4.1 Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 6.4.6 HAVING Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 7.4.2 Event-Condition- Action Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 6.4.7 Exercises for Section 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 7.4.3 Triggers in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 6.5 Database hlodifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 7.4.4 Instead-Of Triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 6.5.1 Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 7.4.5 Exercises for Section 7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 6.5.2 Deletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 7.3. Summary of Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 6.5.3 Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 7.6 References for Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 G.5.4 Exercises for Section G.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 6.6 Defining a Relation Schema in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 8 S y s t e m Aspects of SQL 349 6.6.1 Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 8.1 SQL in a Programming Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 6.6.2 Simple Table Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 8.1.1 The Impedance Mismatch Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 6.6.3 Modifying Relation Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 8.1.2 The SQL/Host Language Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 6.6.4 Default Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 8.1.3 The DECLARE Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  6. xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE O F CONTENTS XY 8.1.4 Using Shared Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 8.6.7 Exercises for Section 8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 8.1.5 Single-Row Select Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 8.7 Security and User Authorization in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 8.1.6 Cursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 8.7.1 Privileges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 8.1.7 Modifications by Cursor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 8.7.2 Creating Privileges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 8.1.8 Protecting Against Concurrent Updates . . . . . . . . . . 360 8.7.3 The Privilege-Checking Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 8.1.9 Scrolling Cursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 8.7.4 Granting Privileges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 8.1.10 Dynamic SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 8.7.5 Grant Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 8.1.11 Exercises for Section 8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 8.7.6 Revoking Privileges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 8.2 Procedures Stored in the Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 8.7.7 Exercises for Section 8.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 8.2.1 Creating PSM Functions and Procedures . . . . . . . . . 365 8.8 Summary of Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 8.2.2 Some Simple Statement Forms in PSM . . . . . . . . . . . 366 8.9 References for Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 8.2.3 Branching Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 8.2.4 Queries in PSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 9 Object-Orientation in Query Languages 425 8.2.5 Loops in PSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 9.1 Introduction to OQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 8.2.6 For-Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 9.1.1 An Object-Oriented Movie Example . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 8.2.7 Exceptions in PSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 9.1.2 Path Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 8.2.8 Using PSM Functions and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 376 9.1.3 Select-From-Where Expressions in OQL . . . . . . . . . . 428 8.2.9 Exercises for Section 8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 9.1.4 Modifying the Type of the Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 8.3 The SQL Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 9.1.5 Complex Output Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 8.3.1 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 9.1.6 Subqueries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 8.3.2 Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 9.1.7 Exercises for Section 9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 8.3.3 Catalogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 9.2 Additional Forms of OQL Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 8.3.4 Clients and Servers in the SQL Environment . . . . . . . 382 9.2.1 Quantifier Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 8.3.5 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 9.2.2 Aggregation Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 8.3.6 Sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 9.2.3 Group-By Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 8.3.7 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 9.2.4 HAVING Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 8.4 Using a Call-Level Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 9.2.5 Union, Intersection, and Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 8.4.1 Introduction to SQL/CLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 9.2.6 Exercises for Section 9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 8.4.2 Processing Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 9.3 Object Assignment and Creation in OQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 8.4.3 Fetching Data F'rom a Query Result . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 9.3.1 Assigning 1-alues to Host-Language b i a b l e s . . . . . . . 444 8.4.4 Passing Parameters to Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 9.3.2 Extracting Elements of Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 8.4.5 Exercises for Section 8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 9.3.3 Obtaining Each Member of a Collection . . . . . . . . . . 445 8.5 Java Database Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 9.3.4 Constants in OQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 8.5.1 Introduction to JDBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 9.3.5 Creating Sew Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 8.5.2 Creating Statements in JDBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 9.3.6 Exercises for Section 9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 8.3.3 Cursor Operations in JDBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 . 9.4 User-Defined Types in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 8.5.4 Parameter Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 9.4.1 Defining Types in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 8.5.5 Exercises for Section 8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 9.4.2 XIethods in User-Defined Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51 8.6 Transactions in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 9.4.3 Declaring Relations with a UDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 8.6.1 Serializability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 9.4 4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 8.6.2 Atomicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 9.4.5 Exercises for Section 9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 8.6.3 Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 9.5 Operations on Object-Relational Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 8.6.4 Read-only Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 9.5.1 Following References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 8.6.5 Dirty Reads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 9.5.2 Accessing .Attributes of Tuples with a UDT . . . . . . . . 456 8.6.6 Other Isolation Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 9.5.3 Generator and Mutator Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  7. xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii 9.5.4 Ordering Relationships on UDT's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 11.2.3 17irtualMemory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 9.5.5 Exercises for Section 9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 11.2.4 Secondary Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 9.6 Summary of Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 11.2.5 Tertiary Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 9.7 References for Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 11.2.6 Volatile and Nonvolatile Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 11.2.7 Exercises for Section 11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 10 Logical Query Languages 463 11.3 Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 10.1 A Logic for Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 11.3.1 ivlechanics of Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 10.1.1 Predicates and Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 11.3.2 The Disk Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 10.1.2 Arithmetic Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 11.3.3 Disk Storage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 10.1.3 Datalog Rules and Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 11.3.4 Disk Access Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 10.1.4 Meaning of Datalog Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 10.1.5 Extensional and Intensional Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . 469 11.3.5 Writing Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 10.1.6 Datalog Rules Applied to Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 11.3.6 Modifying Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 10.1.7 Exercises for Section 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 11.3.7 Exercises for Section 11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 10.2 Fkom Ilelational Algebra to Datalog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 11.4 Using Secondary Storage Effectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 10.2.1 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 11.4.1 The I f 0 Model of Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 10.2.2 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 11.4.2 Sorting Data in Secondary Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 10.2.3 Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 11.4.3 Merge-Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 10.2.4 Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 11.4.4 Two-Phase, Multiway 'ferge-Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 10.2.5 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 11.4.5 AIultiway Merging of Larger Relations . . . . . . . . . . . 532 10.2.6 Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 11.4.6 Exercises for Section 11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 10.2.7 Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 11.5 Accelerating Access to Secondary Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 10.2.8 Simulating Alultiple Operations with Datalog . . . . . . . 477 11.5.1 Organizing Data by Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 10.2.9 Exercises for Section 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 11.5.2 Using llultiple Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 10.3 Recursive Programming in Datalog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 11.5.3 Mirroring Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 10.3.1 Recursive Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 11.5.4 Disk Scheduling and the Elevator Algorithm . . . . . . . 538 10.3.2 Evaluating Recursive Datalog Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 11.5.5 Prefetching and Large-Scale Buffering . . . . . . . . . . . 541 10.3.3 Negation in Recursive Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 11.5.6 Summary of Strategies and Tradeoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 10.3.4 Exercises for Section 10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 11.5.7 Exercises for Section 11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 10.4 Recursion in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 11.6 Disk Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 10.4.1 Defining IDB Relations in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 11.6.1 Intermittent Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 10.4.2 Stratified Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 11.6.2 Checksums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 10.4.3 Problematic Expressions in Recursive SQL . . . . . . . . 496 11.6.3 Stable Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 10.4.4 Exercises for Section 10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 11.6.4 Error-Handling Capabilities of Stable Storage . . . . . . . 549 10.5 Summary of Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 11.6.5 Exercises for Section 11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 10.6 References for Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 11.7 Recorery from Disk Crashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 11 Data Storage 503 11.7.1 The Failure Model for Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 11.1 The "Megatron 2OOZ" Database System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 11.7.2 llirroring as a Redundancy Technique . . . . . . . . . . . 552 11.1.1 hlegatron 2002 Implenlentation Details . . . . . . . . . . 504 11.7.3 Parity Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 11.1.2 How LIegatron 2002 Executes Queries . . . . . . . . . . . 505 11.7.4 An Improvement: RAID 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 11.1.3 What's Wrong With hiegatron 2002? . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 11.7.5 Coping With Multiple Disk Crashes . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 11.2 The Memory Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 11.7.6 Exercises for Section 11.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 11.2.1 Cache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 11.8 Summary of Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 11.2.2 Main Alernory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 11.9 References for Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  8. xviii TABLE O F CONTIWTS TABLE O F CONTENTS xix 12 Representing Data Elements 567 13.2.4 Document Retrieval and Inverted Indexes . . . . . . . . . 626 12.1 Data Elements and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 13.2.5 Exercises for Section 13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630 12.1.1 Representing Relational Database Elements . . . . . . . . 568 13.3 B-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 12.1.2 Representing Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 13.3.1 The Structure of B-trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 12.1.3 Representing Data Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 13.3.2 Applications of B-trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 12.2 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 5 7 2 13.3.3 Lookup in B-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 12.2.1 Building Fixed-Length Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 13.3.4 Range Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 12.2.2 Record Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 13.3.5 Insertion Into B-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 12.2.3 Packing Fixed-Length Records into Blocks . . . . . . . . . 576 13.3.6 Deletion From B-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 12.2.4 Exercises for Section 12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 13.3.7 Efficiency of B-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 12.3 Representing Block and Record Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 13.3.8 Exercises for Section 13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 12.3.1 Client-Server Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 13.4 Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 12.3.2 Logical and Structured Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 13.4.1 Secondary-Storage Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 12.3.3 Pointer Swizzling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 13.4.2 Insertion Into a Hash Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 12.3.4 Returning Blocks to Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 13.4.3 Hash-Table Deletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 12.3.5 Pinned Records and Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 86 13.4.4 Efficiencyof Hash Table Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 12.3.6 Exercises for Section 12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 13.4.5 Extensible Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 12.4 Variable-Length Data and Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 13.4.6 Insertion Into Extensible Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . 653 12.4.1 Records With Variable-Length Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 390 13.4.7 Linear Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 12.4.2 Records With Repeating Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 13.4.8 Insertion Into Linear Hash Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 12.4.3 Variable-Format Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 13.4.9 Exercises for Section 13.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 12.4.4 Records That Do Not Fit in a Block . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 13.5 Summary of Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 12.4.5 BLOBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 13.6 References for Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 12.4.6 Exercises for Section 12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 12.5 Record Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 14 Multidimensional a n d B i t m a p Indexes 665 12.5.1 Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 14.1 -4pplications Xeeding klultiple Dimensio~ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 12.5.2 Deletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 14.1.1 Geographic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 12.5.3 Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 14.1.2 Data Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 12.5.4 Exercises for Section 12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 14.1.3 I\lultidimensional Queries in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 12.6 Summary of Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602 14.1.4 Executing Range Queries Using Conventional Indexes . . 670 12.7 References for Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 14.1.5 Executing Nearest-Xeighbor Queries Using Conventional Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 13 Index Structures 605 14.1.6 Other Limitations of Conventional Indexes . . . . . . . . 673 13.1 Indexes on Sequential Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 14.1.7 Overview of llultidimensional Index Structures . . . . . . 673 13.1.1 Sequential Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 14.1.8 Exercises for Section 14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 13.1.2 Dense Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . 607 14.2 Hash-Like Structures for lIultidimensiona1 Data . . . . . . . . . 675 13.1.3 Sparse Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 14.2.1 Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 13.1.4 Multiple Levels of Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 11.2.2 Lookup in a Grid File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 13.1.5 Indexes With Duplicate Search Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 14.2.3 Insertion Into Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 13.1.6 Managing Indexes During Data llodifications . . . . . . . 615 1-1.2.4 Performance of Grid Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 13.1.7 Exercises for Section 13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 14.2.5 Partitioned Hash Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 13.2 Secondary Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 14.2.6 Comparison of Grid Files and Partitioned Hashing . . . . 683 13.2.1 Design of Secondary Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 14.2.7 Exercises for Section 14.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 13.2.2 .4 pplications of Secondary Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 14.3 Tree-Like Structures for AIultidimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . 687 13.2.3 Indirection in Secondary Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 14.3.1 Multiple-Key Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  9. xx TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTEXTS xxi 14.3.2 Performance of Multiple-Key Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 15.4.8 Summary of Sort-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 14.3.3 kd-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 15.4.9 Exercises for Section 15.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 14.3.4 Operations on kd-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 15.5 Two-Pass Algorithms Based on Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 14.3.5 .4 dapting kd-Trees to Secondary Storage . . . . . . . . . . 693 15.5.1 Partitioning Relations by Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 14.3.6 Quad Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 15.5.2 A Hash-Based Algorithm for Duplicate Elimination . . . 750 14.3.7 R-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 15.5.3 Hash-Based Grouping and Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . 751 14.3.8 Operations on R-trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 15.5.4 Hash-Based Union, Intersection, and Difference . . . . . . 751 14.3.9 Exercises for Section 14.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 15.5.5 The Hash-Join Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 14.4 Bitmap Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 15.5.6 Saving Some Disk I/O1s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753 14.4.1 Motivation for Bitmap Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 15.5.7 Summary of Hash-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 14.4.2 Compressed Bitmaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 15.5.8 Exercises for Section 15.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 14.4.3 Operating on Run-Length-Encoded Bit-Vectors . . . . . . 706 15.6 Index-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 14.4.4 Managing Bitmap Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 15.6.1 Clustering and Nonclustering Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . 757 14.4.5 Exercises for Section 14.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 15.6.2 Index-Based Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758 14.5 Summary of Chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 14.6 References for Chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 15.6.3 Joining by Using an Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 15.6.4 Joins Using a Sorted Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 15 Query Execution 713 15.6.5 Exercises for Section 15.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 15.1 Introduction to Physical-Query-Plan Operators . . . . . . . . . . 715 15.7 Buffer Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 15.1.1 Scanning Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 15.7.1 Buffer Itanagement Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 15.1.2 Sorting While Scanning Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 15.7.2 Buffer Management Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 15.1.3 The Model of Computation for Physical Operators . . . . 717 15.7.3 The Relationship Between Physical Operator Selection 15.1.4 Parameters for Measuring Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 and Buffer Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 15.1.5 I/O Cost for Scan Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 15.7.4 Exercises for Section 15.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 15.1.6 Iterators for Implementation of Physical Operators . . . . 720 15.8 Algorithms Using More Than Two Passes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 15.2 One-Pass Algorithms for Database Operations . . . . . . . . . . 722 15.8.1 Multipass Sort-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 15.2.1 One-Pass Algorithms for Tuple-at-a-Time Operations . . 724 15.8.2 Performance of l.fultipass, Sort-Based Algorithms . . . . 772 15.2.2 One-Pass Algorithms for Unary, Full-Relation Operations 725 15.8.3 Multipass Hash-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 15.2.3 One-Pass Algorithms for Binary Operations . . . . . . . . 728 15.8.4 Performance of Multipass Hash-Based Algorithms . . . . 773 15.2.4 Exercises for Section 15.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 15.5.5 Exercises for Section 15.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 15.3 Nested-I,oop Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 15.9 Parallel Algorithms for Relational Operations . . . . . . . . . . . 775 15.3.1 Tuple-Based Nested-Loop Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 15.9.1 SIodels of Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 15.3.2 An Iterator for Tuple-Based Nested-Loop Join . . . . . . 733 15.9.2 Tuple-at-a-Time Operations in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . 777 15.3.3 A Block-Based Nested-Loop Join Algorithm . . . . . . . . 734 15.9.3 Parallel Algorithms for Full-Relation Operations . . . . . 779 15.3.4 Analysis of Nested-Loop Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 15.9.4 Performance of Parallel Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 15.3.5 Summary of Algorithms so Far . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 15.9.5 Exercises for Section 15.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782 15.3.6 Exercises for Section 15.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 15.10 Summary of Chapter 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 15.4 Two-Pass Algorithms Based on Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737 15.11 References for Chapter 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 15.4.1 Duplicate Elimination Using Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 15.4.2 Grouping and -Aggregation Using Sorting . . . . . . . . . 740 16 The Query Compiler 787 15.4.3 A Sort-Based Union .lgorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 4 16.1 Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '788 15.4.4 Sort-Based Intersection and Difference . . . . . . . . . . . 742 16.1.1 Syntax .Analysis and Parse Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 15.4.5 A Simple Sort-Based Join Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 16.1.2 A Grammar for a Simple Subset of SQL . . . . . . . . . . 789 15.4.6 Analysis of Simple Sort-Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 16.1.3 The Preprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 15.4.7 A More Efficient Sort-Based Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 16.1.4 Exercises for Section 16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  10. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii 16.2 Algebraic Laws for Improving Query Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 16.7.7 Ordering of Physical Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 16.2.1 Commutative and Associative Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 16.7.8 Exercises for Section 16.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 16.2.2 Laws Involving Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 16.8 Summary of Chapter 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 16.2.3 Pushing Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 16.9 References for Chapter 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 16.2.4 Laws Involving Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 16.2.5 Laws About Joins and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805 17 Coping W i t h System Failures 875 16.2.6 Laws Involving Duplicate Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . 805 17.1. Issues and Models for Resilient Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 16.2.7 Laws Involving Grouping and Aggregation . . . . . . . . . 806 17.1.1 Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876 I 16.2.8 Exercises for Section 16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 17.1.2 More About Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 16.3 From Parse Bees to Logical Query Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 17.1.3 Correct Execution of Transactions I . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879 1 16.3.1 Conversion to Relational Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811 17.1.4 The Primitive Operations of Transactions . . . . . . . . . 880 1 16.3.2 Removing Subqueries From Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 812 16.3.3 Improving the Logical Query Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 17.1.5 Exercises for Section 17.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 16.3.4 Grouping Associative/Commutative Operators . . . . . . 819 17.2 Undo Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884 16.3.5 Exercises for Section 16.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820 17.2.1 Log Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884 i 16.4 Estimating the Cost of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 17.2.2 The Undo-Logging Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885 16.4.1 Estimating Sizes of Intermediate Relations . . . . . . . . 822 17.2.3 Recovery Using Undo Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889 16.4.2 Estimating the Size of a Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 17.2.4 Checkpointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 16.4.3 Estimating the Size of a Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 17.2.5 Nonquiescent Checkpointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 16.4.4 Estimating the Size of a Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 17.2.6 Exercises for Section 17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 16.4.5 Natural Joins With Multiple Join Attributes . . . . . . . 829 17.3 Redo Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 16.4.6 Joins of Many Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 17.3.1 The Redo-Logging Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 16.4.7 Estimating Sizes for Other Operations . . . . . . . . . . . 832 17.3.2 Recovery With Redo Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 16.4.8 Exercises for Section 16.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834 17.3.3 Checkpointing a Redo Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 16.5 Introduction to Cost-Based Plan Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 17.3.4 Recovery With a Checkpointed Redo Log . . . . . . . . . 901 16.5.1 Obtaining Estimates for Size Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 836 17.3.5 Exercises for Section 17.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902 16.5.2 Computation of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 17.4 Undo/RedoLogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 16.5.3 Heuristics for Reducing the Cost of Logical Query Plans . 840 17.4.1 The Undo/Redo Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 16.5.4 Approaches to Enumerating Physical Plans . . . . . . . . 842 17.4.2 Recovery With Undo/Redo Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 16.5.5 Exercises for Section 16.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 17.4.3 Checkpointing an Undo/Redo Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 16.6 Choosing an Order for Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 16.6.1 Significance of Left and Right Join Arguments . . . . . . 8-27 17.4.4 Exercises for Section 17.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 16.6.2 Join Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 17..5 Protecting Against Media Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 16.6.3 Left-Deep Join Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 17.5.1 The Archive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 16.6.4 Dynamic Programming to Select a Join Order and Grouping852 17.5.2 Nonquiescent Archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . 910 16.6.5 Dynamic Programming With More Detailed Cost Functions856 17.5.3 Recovery Using an Archive and Log . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 16.6.6 A Greedy Algorithm for Selecting a Join Order . . . . . . 837 17.5.4 Exercises for Section 17.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 16.6.7 Exercises for Section 16.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 17.6 Summary of Chapter 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 16.7 Con~pleting Physical-Query-Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 the 17.7 References for Chapter 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 16.7.1 Choosing a Selection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 16.7.2 Choosing a Join Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862 18 Concurrency Control 917 16.7.3 Pipelining Versus Materialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863 18.1 Serial and Serializable Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 16.7.4 Pipelining Unary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 18.1.1 Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 16.7.5 Pipelining Binary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 18.1.2 Serial Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 16.7.6 Notation for Physical Query Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867 18.1.3 Serializable Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  11. xxiv TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS xxv 18.1.4 The Effect of Transaction Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . 921 18.9 Concurrency Control by Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .979 18.1.5 A Notation for Transactions and Schedules . . . . . . . . 923 18.9.1 Architecture of a Validation-Based Scheduler . . . . . . . 979 18.1.6 Exercises for Section 18.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 18.9.2 The Validation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 18.2 Conflict-Seridiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 18.9.3 Comparison of Three Concurrency-Control ~~lechanisms 983 . 18.2.1 Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 18.9.4 Exercises for Section 18.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 18.2.2 Precedence Graphs and a Test for Conflict-Serializability 926 18.10 Summary of Chapter 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935 18.2.3 Why the Precedence-Graph Test Works . . . . . . . . . . 929 18.11 References for Chapter 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 18.2.4 Exercises for Section 18.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930 18.3 Enforcing Serializability by Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 19 M o r e A b o u t Transaction Management 989 18.3.1 Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 19.1 Serializability and Recoverability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989 18.3.2 The Locking Scheduler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 19.1.1 The Dirty-Data Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 18.3.3 Two-Phase Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 19.1.2 Cascading Rollback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 18.3.4 Why Two-Phase Locking Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 19.1.3 Recoverable Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 18.3.5 Exercises for Section 18.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 19.1.4 Schedules That Avoid Cascading Rollback . . . . . . . . . 993 18.4 Locking Systems With Several Lock hlodes . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 19.1.5 JIanaging Rollbacks Using Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 18.4.1 Shared and Exclusive Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 . 19.1.6 Group Commit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 18.4.2 Compatibility Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 19.1.7 Logical Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 18.4.3 Upgrading Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 19.1.8 Recovery From Logical Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 18.4.4 Update Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 19.1.9 Exercises for Section 19.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 18.4.5 Increment Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16 19.2 View Serializability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003 18.4.6 Exercises for Section 18.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949 19.2.1 View Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003 18.5 An Architecture for a Locking Scheduler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951 19.2.2 Polygraphs and the Test for View-Serializability . . . . . 1004 18.5.1 A Scheduler That Inserts Lock Actions . . . . . . . . . . 951 19.2.3 Testing for View-Serializability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 18.5.2 The Lock Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95% 19.2.4 Exercises for Section 19.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008 18.5.3 Exercises for Section 18.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957 19.3 Resolving Deadlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 18.6 hianaging Hierarchies of Database Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 957 19.3.1 Deadlock Detection by Timeout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 18.6.1 Locks With Multiple Granularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957 18.6.2 Warning Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 19.3.2 The IVaits-For Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 18.6.3 Phantoms and Handling Insertions Correctly . . . . . . . 961 19.3.3 Deadlock Prevention by Ordering Elements . . . . . . . . 1012 18.6.4 Exercises for Section 18.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 19.3.4 Detecting Deadlocks by Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 18.7 The Tree Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 19.3.5 Comparison of Deadlock-Alanagenient Methods . . . . . . 1016 18.7.1 Motivation for Tree-Based Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 19.3.6 Esercises for Section 19.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017 18.7.2 Rules for Access to Tree-Structured Data . . . . . . . . . 964 19.4 Distributed Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018 18.7.3 Why the Tree Protocol Works . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . 965 19.4.1 Distribution of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 18.7.4 Exercises for Section 18.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968 19.4.2 Distributed Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 18.8 Concurrency Control by Timestanips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 19.4.3 Data Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 18.8.1 Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Q 19.4.4 Distributed Query Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 18.8.2 Physically Cnrealizable Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 19.1.3 Exercises for Section 19.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 18.8.3 Problems Kith Dirty Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 19.5 Distributed Commit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 18.8.4 The Rules for Timestamp-Based Scheduling . . . . . . . . 973 19.5.1 Supporting Distributed dtomicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 18.8.5 Xfultiversion Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 19.5.2 Two-Phase Commit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024 18.8.6 Timestamps and Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 19.5.3 Recovery of Distributed Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026 18.8.7 Exercises for Section 18.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 19.5.4 Esercises for Section 19.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  12. xxvi TABLE OF CONTENTS xxvii 19.6 Distributed Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 20.5.4 Exercises for Section 20.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083 19.6.1 Centralized Lock Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 20.6 Data Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108s 19.6.2 A Cost Model for Distributed Locking Algorithms . . . . 1030 20.6.1 Data-Mining Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089 19.6.3 Locking Replicated Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 20.6.2 Finding Frequent Sets of Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092 19.6.4 Primary-Copy Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032 20.6.3 The -2-Priori Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 19.6.5 Global Locks From Local Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 20.6.4 Exercises for Section 20.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 19.6.6 Exercises for Section 19.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034 20.7 Summary of Chapter 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097 19.7 Long-Duration Pansactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 20.8 References for Chapter 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098 19.7.1 Problems of Long Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 19.7.2 Sagas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 Index 1101 19.7.3 Compensating Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038 19.7.4 Why Compensating Transactions Work . . . . . . . . . . 1040 19.7.5 Exercises for Section 19.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 19.8 Summary of Chapter 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 19.9 References for Chapter 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 1 i 1; 20 Information Tntegration 1047 i 1 20.1 Modes of Information Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 1 ; 20.1.1 Problems of Information Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 i : 20.1.2 Federated Database Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 : 20.1.3 Data Warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051 20.1.4 Mediators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10ii3 1 20.1.5 Exercises for Section 20.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056 ; * 1 i 20.2 Wrappers in Mediator-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 20.2.1 Templates for Query Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058 ij 20.2.2 Wrapper Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 fI e 20.2.3 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 I i 20.2.4 Other Operations at the Wrapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062 is 1 20.2.5 Exercises for Section 20.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063 20.3 Capability-Based Optimization in Mediators . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064 11 i 20.3.1 The Problem of Limited Source Capabilities . . . . . . . . 1065 20.3.2 A Notation for Describing Source Capabilities . . . . . . . 1066 I/ /I I 2 c 20.3.3 Capability-Based Query-Plan Selection . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 20.3.4 Adding Cost-Based Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069 20.3.5 Exercises for Section 20'.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069 1: 20.4 On-Line Analytic Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070 20.4.1 OLAP Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071 20.4.2 -4 %fultidimensionalView of OLAP Data . . . . . . . . . 1072 20.4.3 Star Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1073 20.4.4 Slicing and Dicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076 20.4.5 Exercises for Section 20.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078 20.5 Data Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079 20.5.1 The Cube Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079 20.5.2 Cube Implementation by Materialized Views . . . . . . . 1082 20.5.3 The Lattice of Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  13. Chapter 1 The Worlds of Database Systems Databases today are essential to every business. They are used to maintain internal records, to present data to customers and clients on the Mbrld-Wide- Web, and to support many other commercial processes. Databases are likewise found at the core of many scientific investigations. They represent the data gathered by astronomers, by investigators of the human genome, and by bio- chemists exploring the medicinal properties of proteins, along with many other scientists. The power of databases comes from a body of knowledge and technology that has developed over several decades and is embodied in specialized soft- ware called a database rnarlngement system, or DBAlS, or more colloquially a .'database system." .\ DBMS is a powerful tool for creating and managing large amounts of data efficiently and allowing it to persist over long periods of time, safely. These s\-stems are among the most complex types of software available. The capabilities that a DBMS provides the user are: 1. Persistent storage. Like a file system, a DBMS supports the storage of very large amounts of data that exists independently of any processes that are using the data. Hoxever, the DBMS goes far beyond the file system in pro~iding flesibility. such as data structures that support efficient access to very large amounts of data. 2. Programming ~nterface.. DBMS allo~vs user or an application pro- I the gram to awes> and modify data through a pon-erful query language. Again, the advantage of a DBMS over a file system is the flexibility to manipulate stored data in much more complex ways than the reading and writing of files. 3. Transaction management. A DBMS supports concurrent access to data, i.e.: simultaneous access by many distinct processes (called "transac- Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  14. CHAPTER 1. THE WORLDS OF DATABASE SYSTE&fs 1.l. THE EVOLUTION OF DATABASE SI'Sl'E-$.IS 3 tions") at once. To avoid some of the undesirable consequences of si- The first important applications of DBMS's were ones where data was com- multaneous access, the DBMS supports isolation, the appearance that posed of many small items, and many queries or modification~ were made. Here transactions execute one-at-a-time, and atomicity, the requirement that are some of these applications. transactions execute either completely or not at all. A DBMS also sup- ports durability, the ability to recover from failures or errors of many Airline Reservations Systems types. In this type of system, the items of data include: 1.1 The Evolution of Database Systems 1. Reservations by a single customer on a single flight, including such infor- mation as assigned seat or med preference. What is a database? In essence a database is nothing more than a collection of information that exists over a long period of time, often many years. In common 2. Information about flights - the airports they fly from and to, their de- parlance, the term database refers to a collection of data that is managed by a parture and arrival times, or the aircraft flown, for example. DBMS. The DBMS is expected to: 3. Information about ticket prices, requirements, and availability. 1. Allow users to create new databases and specify their schema (logical Typical queries ask for flights leaving around a certain time from one given structure of the data), using a specialized language called a data-definition city to another, what seats are available, and at what prices. Typical data language. modifications include the booking of a flight for a customer, assigning a seat, or 2. Give users the ability to query the data (a "query" is database lingo for indicating a meal preference. Many agents will be accessing parts of the data a question about the data) and modify the data, using an appropriate at any given time. The DBMS must allow such concurrent accesses, prevent language, often called a query language or data-manipulation language. problems such as two agents assigning the same seat simultaneously, and protect against loss of records if the system suddenly fails. 3. Support the storage of very large amounts of data - many gigabytes or more - over a long period of time, keeping it secure from accident or Banking Systems unauthorized use and allowing efficient access to the data for queries and database modifications. Data items include names and addresses of customers, accounts, loans, and their balances, and the connection between customers and their accounts and loans, 4. Control access to data from many users at once, without allo~vingthe e.g., who has signature authority over which accounts. Queries for account actions of one user to affect other users and without allowing sin~ultaneous balances are common, but far more common are modifications representing a accesses to corrupt the data accidentally. single payment from, or deposit to, an account. .Is with the airline reservation system, we expect that many tellers and 1.1.1 Early Database Management Systems customers (through AT11 machines or the Web) will be querying and modifying the bank's data at once. It is \-ital that simultaneous accesses to a n account not The first commercial database management systems appeared in the late 1960's. cause the effect of a transaction to be lost. Failures cannot be tolerated. For These systems evolved from file systems, which provide some of item (3) above; example, once the money has been ejected from an ATJi machine, the bank file systems store data over a long period of time, and they allow the storage of must record the debit, even if the po~ver immediately fails. On the other hand, large amounts of data. However, file systems do not generally guarantee that it is not permissible for the bank to record the debit and then not deliver the data cannot be lost if it is not backed up, and they don't support efficient access money if the po~x-er fails. The proper way to handle this operation is far from to data items whose location in a particular file is not known. ob~ious and can he regarded as one of the significant achievements in DBlIS Further: file systems do not directly support item (2), a query language for architecture. the data in files. Their support for (1) - a schema for the data - is linlited to the creation of directory structures for files. Finally, file systems do not satisfy C o r p o r a t e Records (4). When they allow concurrent access to files by several users or processes, a file system generally will not prevent situations such as two users modifying llany early applications concerned corporate records, such as a record of each the same file at about the same time, so the changes made by one user fail to sale, information about accounts payable and recei~able, information about or appear in the file. employees - their names, addresses: salary, benefit options, tax status, and Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  15. 4 CHAPTER 1. THE WORLDS OF DATABASE SYSTEMS .I. THE EVOLUTION OF D.4TABASE SYSTEMS 5 so on. Queries include the printing of reports such as accounts receivable or Heading the columns are the three attributes: accountNo, balance, and type. employees' weekly paychecks. Each sale, purchase, bill, receipt, employee hired, Below the attributes are the rows, or tuples. Here we show two t.uples of the fired, or promoted, and so on, results in a modification to the database. relation explicitly, and the dots below them suggest that there would be many more tuples, one for each account at the bank. The first tuple says that account The early DBMS's, evolving from file systems, encouraged the user to visu- number-12345 has a balance of one thousand dollars, and it is a savings account. alize data much as it was stored. These database systems used several different The second tuple says that account 67890 is a checking account wit11 $2846.92. data models for describing the structure of the information in a database, chief Suppose we wanted to know the balance of account 67690. We could ask among them the "hierarchical" or tree-based model and the graph-based "net- this query in SQL as follows: work" model. The latter was standardized in the late 1960's through a report of CODASYL (Committee on Data Systems and Languages).' SELECT balance A problem with these early models and systems was that they did not sup- FROM Accounts port high-level query languages. For example, the CODASYL query language WHERE accountNo = 67890; had statements that allowed the user to jump from data element to data ele- ment, through a graph of pointers among these elements. There was consider- For another example, we could ask for the savings accounts with negative bal- able effort needed to write such programs, even for very simple queries. ances by: SELECT accountNo 1.1.2 Relational Database Systems FROM Accounts Following a famous paper written by Ted Codd in 1970,2 database systems WHERE type = 'savings' AND balance < 0; changed significantly. Codd proposed that database systems should present the user with a view of data organized as tables called relations. Behind the We do not expect that these two examples are enough to make the reader an scenes, there might be a complex data structure that allowed rapid response to expert SQL programmer, but they should convey the high-level nature of the a variety of queries. But, unlike the user of earlier database systems, the user of SQL "select-from-where" statement. In principle, they ask the DBMS to a relational system would not be concerned with the storage structure. Queries 1. Examine all the tuples of the relation Accounts mentioned in the FROM could be expressed in a very high-level language, which greatly increased the clause, efficiency of database programmers. We shall cover the relational model of database systems throughout most 2. Pick out those tuples that satisfy some criterion indicated in the WHERE of this book, starting with the basic relational concepts in Chapter 3. SQL clause, and ("Structured Query Language"), the most important query language based on the relational model, will be covered starting in Chapter 6. However, a brief 3. Produce as an answer certain attributes of those tuples, as indicated in introduction to relations will give the reader a hint of the simplicity of the the SELECT clause. model, and an SQL sample will suggest how the relational model promotes queries written at a very high level, avoiding details of "navigation" through In practice. the system must "optimize" the query and find an efficient way to the database. ansn-er the query, even though the relations in~olred the query may be rery in large. 0 Example 1.1: Relations are tables. Their columns are headed by attributes, which describe the entries in the column. For instance, a relation named By 1990. relational database systems were the norm. Yet the database field Accounts, recording bank accounts, their balance, and type might look like: continues to evolve. and new issues and approaches to the management of data surface regularlj-. In the balance of this section, we shall consider some of the accountNo I balance I type modern trends in database systems. 12345 67890 1.1.3 Smaller and Smaller Systems Originally, DBJIS's were large, expensive softn-are systems running on large 'GODASYL Data Base Task Group April 1971 Report, ACM, New York. 'Codd, E. F., "A relational model for large shared data banks," Comrn. ACM, 13:6, computers. The size was necessary, because to store a gigabyte of data required pp. 377-387, 1970. a large computer system. Today, many gigabytes fit on a single disk, and Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  16. 6 CHAPTER 1. THE WORLDS OF DATABASE SYSTEMS 1.1. T H E EVOLUTION OF DATABASE ST7STEhIS 7 it is quite feasible to run a DBMS on a personal computer. Thus, database through index structures, which we shall mention in Section 1.2.2 and cover systems based on the relational model have become available for even very small extensively in Chapter 13. Another way to process more data in a given time machines, and they are beginning to appear as a common tool for computer is to use parallelism. This parallelism manifests itself in various ways. applications, much as spreadsheets and word processors did before them. For example, since the rate a t which data can be read from a given disk is fairly low, a few megabytes per second, we can speed processing if we use many 1.1.4 Bigger and Bigger Systems disks and read them in parallel (even if the data originates on tertiary storage, it is "cached on disks before being accessed by the DBMS). These disks may On the other hand, a gigabyte isn't much data. Corporate databases often be part of an organized parallel machine, or they may be components of a occupy hundreds of gigabytes. Further, as storage becomes cheaper people distributed system, in which many machines, each responsible for a part of the find new reasons to store greater amounts of data. For example, retail chains database, communicate over a high-speed network when needed. often store terabytes (a terabyte is 1000 gigabytes, or 101%ytes) of information recording the history of every sale made over a long period of time (for planning Of course, the ability to move data quickly, like the ability to store large inventory; we shall have more to say about this matter in Section 1.1.7). amounts of data, does not by itself guarantee that queries can be answered Further, databases no longer focus on storing simple data items such as quickly. We still need to use algorithms that break queries up in ways that integers or short character strings. They can store images, audio, video, and allow parallel computers or networks of distributed computers to make effective I many other kinds of data that take comparatively huge amounts of space. For use of all the resources. Thus, parallel and distributed management of very large ! databases remains an active area of research and development; we consider some instance, an hour of video consumes about a gigabyte. Databases storing images i from satellites can involve petabytes (1000 terabytes, or 1015 bytes) of data. I of its important ideas in Section 15.9. Handling such large databases required several technological advances. For example, databases of modest size are today stored on arrays of disks, which are called secondary storage devices (compared to main memory, which is "primary" storage). One could even argue that what distinguishes database systems from 1.1.5 Client-Server and Multi-Tier Architectures other software is, more than anything else, the fact that database systems routinely assume data is too big to fit in main memory and must be located Many varieties of modern software use a client-server architecture, in which primarily on disk at all times. The following two trends allow database systems requests by one process (the client) are sent to another process (the server) for to deal with larger amounts of data, faster. execution. Database systems are no exception, and it has become increasingly common to divide the work of a DBMS into a server process and one or more Tertiary Storage client processes. In the simplest client-server architecture, the entire DBMS is a server, except The largest databases today require more than disks. Several kinds of tertiary for the query interfaces that interact with the user and send queries or other storage devices have been developed. Tertiary devices, perhaps storing a tera- commands across to the server. For example, relational systems generally use byte each, require much more time to access a given item than does a disk. the SQL language for representing requests from the client to the server. The While typical disks can access any item in 10-20 milliseconds, a tertiary device database server then sends the answer, in the form of a table or relation, back may take several seconds. Tertiary storage devices involve transporting an to the client. The relationship between client and server can get more complex, object, upon which the desired data item is stored, to a reading device. This especially when answers are extremely large. We shall have more to say about movement is performed by a robotic conveyance of some sort. this matter in Section 1.1.6. For example, compact disks (CD's) or digital versatile disks (DVD's) may be the storage medium in a tertiary device. An arm mounted on a track goes There is also a trend to put more work in the client, since the server will to a particular disk, picks it up, carries it to a reader, and loads the disk into be a bottleneck if there are many simultaneous database users. In the recent the reader. proliferation of system architectures in which databases are used to provide dynamically-generated content for Web sites, the two-tier (client-server) archi- Parallel Computing tecture gives way to three (or even more) tiers. The DBMS continues to act as a server, but its client is typically an application server, which manages The ability to store enormous volumes of data is important, but it would be connections to the database, transactions, authorization, and other aspects. of little use if we could not access large amounts of that data quickly. Thus, -4pplication servers in turn have clients such as Web servers, which support very large databases also require speed enhancers. One important speedup is end-users or other applications. Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  17. 8 CHAPTER 1 . THE I,VORLDS OF DATABASE SE'STE3,fS 1.2. OVERVIE IV OF d DATABASE M.4NAGEkfEhrT SYSTEM 9 1.1.6 Multimedia Data line orders. .4 large company has many divisions. Each division may have built its own database of products independently of other divisions. These divisions Another important trend in database systems is the inclusion of multimedia nlav use different DBlIS's, different structures for information. perhaps even data. By "multimedia" we mean information that represents a signal of some different terns to mean the same thing or the same term to mean different sort. Common forms of multimedia data include video, audio, radar signals, things. satellite images, and documents or pictures in various encodings. These forms have in cornmon that they are much larger than the earlier forms of data - Example 1.2: Imagine a company with several divisions that manufacture integers, character strings of fixed length, and so on - and of vastly varying disks. One division's catalog might represent rotation rate in revolutions per size. second, another in revolutions per minute. Another might have neglected to The storage of multimedia data has forced DBMS's to expand in several represent rotation speed at all. .-I division manufacturing floppy disks might ways. For example, the operations that one performs on multimedia data are refer to them as "disks," while a division manufacturing hard disks might call not the simple ones suitable for traditional data forms. Thus, while one might thein "disks" as well. The number of tracks on a disk might be referred to as search a bank database for accounts that have a negative balance, comparing "tracks" in one division, but "cylinders" in another. each balance with the real number 0.0, it is not feasible to search a database of pictures for those that show a face that "looks like" a particular image. Central control is not always the answer. Divisions may have invested large To allow users to create and use complex data operatiorls such as image- . amounts of money in their database long before information integration across processing, DBMS's have had to incorporate the ability of users to introduce d- .- lrlsions was recognized as a problem. A division may have been an itide- functions of their own choosing. Oftcn, the object-oriented approach is used pendent company. recently acquired. For these or other reasons. these so-called for such extensions, even in relational systems, which are then dubbed "object- legacy databases cannot be replaced easily. Thus, the company must build some relational." We shall take up object-oriented database programming in various structure on top of tlie legacy databases to present to customers a unified view places, including Chapters 4 and 9. of products across the company. The size of multimedia objects also forces the DBXIS to rnodify tlie storage One popular approach is the creation of data warehouses. ~vhereinforrnatiorl manager so that objects or tuples of a gigabyte or more can be accommodated. from many legacy databases is copied. with the appropriate translation, to a Among the many problems that such large elements present is the delivery of ccritral database. -4s the legacy databases change. the warehouse is updated, answers to queries. In a conventional, relational database, an answer is a set of hut not necessarily instantaneously updated. .A common scheme is for the tuples. These tuples would be delivered to the client by the database server as warehouse to be reconstructed each night, when the legacy databases are likely a whole. to be less bus^ However, suppose the answer to a query is a video clip a gigabyte long. It is The legacy databases are thus able to continue serving the purposes for not feasible for the server to deliver the gigabyte to the cllent as a whole. For which they Tvere created. Sew functions, such as providing an on-line catalog one reason it takes too long and will prevent the server from handling other service through the \leb. are done at the data warehouse. \Ye also see data requests. For another. the client may want only a small part of the fill11 clip, warehouses serving ~iceds planning and analysis. For example. r o m p a y an- for but doesn't have a way to ask for exactly what it wants ~vithoutseeing the alysts may run queries against the warehouse looking for sales trends, in order initial portion of the clip. For a third reason, even if the client wants the whole to better plan inventory and production. Data mining, the search for interest- clip, perhaps in order to play it on a screen, it is sufficient to deliver the clip at ing and unusual patterns in data, has also been enabled by the construction a fised rate over the course of an hour (the amount of time it takes to play a of data ~varel~ouses. there are claims of enhanced sales through exploita- and gigabj te of compressed video). Thus. the storage system of a DBXS supporting tion of patterns disrovered in this n-ay. These and other issues of inforlnation multinledia data has to be prepared to deliver answcrs in an interactive mode. integration are discussed in C h a p t c ~ 20. passing a piece of the answer to tlie client on r~qucst at a fised rate. or 1.2 Overview of a Database Management 1.1.7 Information Integration System As information becomes ever more essential in our work and play, T e find that v esisting information resources are being used in Inany new ways. For instance. In Fig. 1.1n-e see an outline of a complete DBMS. Single boxes represent system consider a company that wants to provide on-line catalogs for all its products. so components. while double boses represent in-memory data structures. The solid that people can use the World Wide 1Ti.b to hrolvse its products and place on- lines indicate control and data flow, while dashed lines indicate data flow only. Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  18. 10 CK4PTER 1. THE IVORLDS OF DATABASE SYSTEMS OVERVIE \V OF A DATABASE ~~..IIVAGEI\~EIVTT E J f SYS 11 Since the diagram is complicated, we shall consider the details in several stages. First, at the top, we suggest that there are two distinct sources of commands to the DBMS: 1. Conventional users and application programs that ask for data or modify data. Database 2. A database administrator: a person or persons responsible for the struc- administrator ture or schema of the database. 1.2.1 Data-Definition Language Commands The second kind of command is the simpler to process, and we show its trail beginning a t the upper right side of Fig. 1.1. For example, the database ad- ministrator, or DBA, for a university registrar's database might decide that there should be a table or relation with columns for a student, a course the student has taken, and a grade for that student in that course. The DBX' might also decide that the only allowable grades are A, B, C, D, and F. This structure and constraint information is all part of the schema of the database. index, It is shown in Fig. 1.1 as entered by the DBB, who needs special authority to execute schema-altering commands, since these can have profound effects on the database. These schema-altering DDL commands ("DDL," stands for "data-definition language") are parsed by a DDL processor and passed to the execution engine, which then goes through the index/file/record manager to alter the metadata, that is, the schema information for the database. me com~nand~ I data, ', mefadata, , indexes \, '. , ,,T ; Buffer manager 1.2.2 Overview of Query Processing The great majority of interactions with the DBMS follo\v the path on the left Pages side of Fig. 1.1. A user or an application program initiates some action that does not affect the schema of the database, but may affect the content of the Storage database (if the action is a modification command) or will extract data from manager the database (if the action is a query). Remember from Section 1.1 that the language in which these commands are expressed is called a data-manipulation language (DML) or somewhat colloquially a query language. There are many data-manipulation languages available, but SQL, which \\*as mentioned in Es- ample 1.1, is by far the most commonly used. D l I L statements are handled by two separate subsystems. as follo\vs. u Storage Figure 1.1: Database ~nanagenicntsystem components Answering the query The query is parsed and optimized by a querg compiler. The resulting gilery plan, or sequence of actions the DBMS will perform to answer the query, is passed to the execution engine. The execution engine issues a sequence of requests for small pieces of data, typically records or tuples of a relation, to a resource manager that knows about data Eles (holding relations), the format Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  19. CHAPTER 1. THE I4'ORLDS O F DATABASE SYSTEJIS 0 VER1,TETV O F A DATA BASE M.4.V-4 GEAIEXT SYSTEM 13 and size of records in those files, and index files, which help find elements of transferred. Thus, all DBMS components that need information from the disk data files quickly. will interact with the buffers and the buffer manager, either directly or through The requests for data are translated into pages and these requests are passed the execution engine. The kinds of information that various components may to the bufler manager. We shall discuss the role of the buffer manager in need include: Section 1.2.3, but briefly, its task is to bring appropriate portions of the data from secondary storage (disk, normally) where it is kept permanently, to main- 1. Data: the contents of the dcitabaseitself. memory buffers. Kormally, the page or "disk block" is the unit of transfer between buffers and disk. 2. Metadata: the database schema that describes the structure of, and con- The buffer manager communicates with a storage manager to get data from straints on, the database. disk. The storage manager might involve operating-system commands, but 3. Statistics: information gathered arid stored by the DBMS about data more typically, the DBMS issues commands directly to the disk controller. properties such as the sizes of, and values in, various relations or other components of the database. Transaction processing 4. Indexes: data structures that support efficient access to the data. Queries and other DML actions are grouped into transactions, which are units that must be executed atomically and in isolation from one another. Often each query or modification action is a transaction by itself. In addition, the execu- . -1more complete discussion of the buffer manager and its role appears in Sec- tion 15.7. tion of transactions must be durable, meaning that the effect of any completed transaction must be preserved even if the system fails in some way right after completion of the transaction. U7e divide the transaction processor into two 1.2.4 Transaction Processing major parts: It is normal to group one or more database operations into 3 transaction, which 1. A concurrency-control manager, or scheduler, responsible for assuring is a unit of work that must be executed atomically and in apparent isolation from other transactions. In addition: a DBMS offers the guarantee of durability: atomicity and isolation of transactions, and that the n-ork of a conlpletccl transaction will never be lost. The transaction 2. A logging and recovery manager, responsible for the durability of trans- manager therefore accepts transaction commands from an application, which actions. tell the transaction manager when transactions begin and end, as \veil as infor- mation about the expcctations of the application (some may not wish to require We shall consider these component,s further in Section 1.2.4. atomicit? for example). The transaction processor performs the follo~ving tasks: 1.2.3 Storage and Buffer Management 1. Logging: In order to assure durability. every change in the database is logged separately on disk. Thc log manager follo~vs of several policies one The data of a database normally resides in secondary storage; in today's com- designed to assure that no matter \\-hen a system failure or ..crash" occurs, puter systems "secondary storage" generally means magnetic disk. However. to a recovery manager will be able to examine the log of changes and restore perform any useful operation on data, that data must be in main memory. It the database to some consistent state. The log manager initially writes is the job of the storage manager to control the placement of data on disk and the log in buffers ant1 negotiates ~vitli buffer manager to make sure that the its movement between disk and main memory. buffers are 11-rittcnto disk (where data can survive a crash) a t appropriate In a simple database system. the storage manager might be nothing more times. than the file system of the underlying operating system. Ho~vever. efficiency for purposes, DBlIS's normally control storage 011 the disk directly at least under 2. Concurrerjcy control: Transactions must appear to execute in isolation. some circumstances. The storage manager keeps track of the locatioil of files on But in iliost systems. there will in truth be niany transactions executing the disk and obtains the block or blocks containing a file on request from the at once. Thus. the scliedt~ler(concurrency-control manager) lilust assure buffer manager. Recall that disks are generally divided into disk blocks. which that the individual actions of multiple transactions are executed in such are regions of contiguous storage containing a large number of bytes, perhaps an order that the net effect is the same as if the transactions had in 212 or 2'' (about 4000 to 16,000 bytes). fact executed in their entirety. one-at-a-time. A typical scheduler does The buffer manager is responsible for partitioning the available main mem- its n-ork by maintaining locks on certain pieces of the database. These ory into buffers, which are page-sized regions into which disk blocks can be locks prevent t ~ wtransactions from accessing the same piece of data in Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
  20. 14 CHAPTER 1. THE 'IVORLDS OF DATABASE SYSTE-4tS 1.3. OL7TLISE OF DATABASE-SYSTEAI STUDIES 15 "relational algebra" operations, which are discussed in Section 5.2. The The ACID Properties of Transactions query compiler consists of three major units: Properly implemented transactions are commonly said to meet the ".\CID (a) A query parser, which builds a tree structure from the textual form test," where: of the query. "A" stands for "atomicity," the all-or-nothing execution of trans- (b) A query preprocessor, which performs semantic checks on the query actions. (e.g.; making sure all relations mentioned by the query actually ex- ist), and performing some tree transformations to turn the parse tree "I" stands for "isolation," the fact that each transaction must appear into a tree of algebraic operators representing the initial query plan. to be executed as if no other transaction is executing at the same time. (c) - query optimizer, which transforxns the initial query plan into the 1 best available sequence of operations on the actual data. "D" stands for "durability," the condition that the effect on the database of a transaction must never be lost, once the transaction The query compiler uses metadata and statistics about the data to decide has completed. which sequence of operations is likely to be the fastest. For example, the existence of an index, which is a specialized data structure that facilitates ' The remaining letter, "C," stands for "consistency." That is, all databases access to data, given values for one or more components of that data, can have consistency constraints, or expectations about relationships among make one plan much faster than another. data elements (e.g., account balances may not be negative). Transactions are expected to preserve the consistency of the database. We discuss the 2. The execution engzne, which has the responsibility for executing each of expression of consistency constraints in a database scherna in Chapter 7, the steps in the chosen query plan. The execution engine interacts with while Section 18.1begins a discussion of how consistency is maintained by most of the other components of the DBMS, either directly or through the DBMS. the buffers. It must get the data from the database into buffers in order to manipulate that data. It needs to interact with the scheduler to avoid accessing data that is locked, and \\-it11the log manager to make sure that all database changes are properly logged. ways that interact badly. Locks are generally stored in a main-memory lock table, as suggested by Fig. 1.1. The scheduler affects the esecution of queries and other database operations by forbidding the execution engine from accessing locked parts of the database. 1.3 Outline of Database-System Studies 3. Deadlock resohtion: As transactions compete for resources through the locks that the scheduler grants, they can get into a situation where none Ideas related to database systems can be divided into three broad categories: can proceed because each needs something another transaction has. The transaction manager has the responsibility to inter~ene and cancel (-roll- 1. Design of databases. How does one develop a useful database? What kinds back" or "abort") one or more transactions to let the others proceed. of information go into the database? How is the information structured? What assumptions arc made about types or values of data items? How do data items connect? 1.2.5 The Query Processor 2. Database progrcsm~ning.Ho\v does one espress queries and other opera- The portion of the DBUS that most affects the performance that the user sees tions on the database? How does one use other capabilities of a DBMS, is the query processor. In Fig. 1.1 the query processor is represented b tn-o !- such as transactions or constraints, in an application? How is database Components: progran~ming combined xith conventional programming? 1. The query compiler. which translates the query into an internal form called 3. Database system implementation. How does one build a DBMS, including a query plan. The latter is a sequence of operations to be performed on such matters as query processing. transaction processing and organizing the data. Often the operations in a query plan are implementations of storage for efficient access? Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
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