Drugs and poisons in humans

Introduction: Determination of methemoglobin (Met-Hb) in blood is important for the diagnosis of poisoning by oxidants, such as nitrite, nitrate, chlorate, chlorite, alkyl nitrites, nitroglycerin, aniline and other compounds. In 1938, Evelyn and Malloy [1] had devised a photoelectric method for determination of Met-Hb in blood. Minor modifications of this method were made by several researchers to increase sensitivity [2–4]. These methods are based on a phenomenon that the absorbance maximum of weakly acidic Met-Hb at 630 nm disappears by addition of cyanide.

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Introduction: Nitrate and nitrite compounds are being used for various purposes, such as coronary artery dilators, coloring reagents for meat, rust preventives, fertilizers and explosives. When a nitrate salt is ingested by a human, nitric acid is converted into nitrous acid by the action of nitric acidreducing bacteria inhabiting the upper digestive tract; the nitrous acid oxidizes the divalent ferrous ion of hemoglobin to produce methemoglobin a with the trivalent ferric ion.

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8.4 II.8.4 Arsenic compounds and other inorganic poisons by Sinichi Suzuki and Yasuhiro Suzuki Introduction The Wakayama Curry Poisoning Incident taking place in August 1998, followed by various imitative poisoning incidents, is still fresh in our memory, because they gave a severe shock and anxiety to the Japanese society. The poison, which had been used in the Wakayama Curry Poisoning Incident was an arsenitea, a classical poison.

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Introduction: As one of azide salts, lead azide is well known, because it is used as a detonator for air bags of automobiles. Recently, sodium azide has been frequently used for suicides and homicidal attempts. In this chapter, therefore, analytical methods are described only for sodium azide. Sodium azidea is being well used as an antiseptic (preservative)b in biochemical researches and as a material for synthesis of organic compounds.

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Introduction: An organophosphorus nerve agent VX (O-ethyl S-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate, Figure 2.1) shows potent inhibitory action on acetylcholinesterase; its development, production, stockpiling and use are being prohibited by the CWC international treaty as a chemical weapon together with those of sarin and soman. In addition, even material compounds for VX synthesis are being also controlled strictly. In the world history, there had been no records on the use of VX in any international dispute.

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Introduction: Chemical weapons (chemical warfare agents), such as sarin and soman, were developed to kill or injure humans by their toxic actions. They are called “nuclear weapon of the poor”, because the weapons are relatively stable during storage, cheap for production and relatively easily synthesized with basic knowledge on organic chemistry. Main advanced countries are making efforts to reduce chemical weapons existing in the world on the basis of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), after the Iran-Iraq War and the Gulf War.

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Introduction: As coumarin rodenticides, warfarin, coumatetralyl, coumafuryl, coumachlor and bromadiolone are commercially available in Japan. The coumarin rodenticides do not show direct anticoagulant action causing bleeding, but inhibit the metabolic cycle of vitamin K; the inhibition causes the interference with protein biosynthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulant factors (II, VII, IX and X factors) in the liver, which are very important for the blood coagulation system. The lowered coagulant factors cause the bleeding deaths of the rodents [1].

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Introduction: Diazine and triazine herbicides are being widely used in the world. These herbicides inhibit the electron-transport system in the higher plants and thus suppress the photosynthesis, resulting in the herbicidal action. These compounds are also important as pollutants for crops, soil and groundwater [1, 2]. The attention is usually directed toward chronic toxicities of the herbicides [3].

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Introduction: Cresol is being used for an antiseptic, disinfectant, maggot-killing agent and cresol soap solution. Since various kinds of more powerful and odorless disinfectants have nowadays become available in practical use, the frequency in the use of cresol seems decreasing. However, the cases of acute poisoning by cresol are still being reported at the present time. The toxic effects of cresol are due to its corrosive actions, resulting in the destruction of cell membranes and coagulation of proteins, and its suppressive action on the central nervous system [1].

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Introduction: Since 1965, when the paraquat herbicide had started to be sold, its poisoning cases increased year by year. However, in 1986, mixture products of paraquat plus diquat with lower toxicity appeared; just after this year, the numer of cases of poisoning by paraquat (plus diquat) decreased suddenly, followed by the gradual decrease until now, but the paraquat (plus diquat) poisoning cases still count as much as about 40 % of the total number of pesticide poisoning [1].

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Introduction: Among many carbamate pesticides commercially available in Japan, those with relatively high toxicities are shown in Table 4.1 [1]. Carbamate pesticides are generally classified into N-methylcarbamate insecticides and N-allylcarbamate herbicides in view of their chemical structures and biological actions. The number of fatalities due to poisoning by carbamate pesticides is 50–100 every year in Japan; many of them are poisoned by methomyl [2].

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Introduction: Non-selective phosphorus-containing amino acid-type herbicides (PAAHs) to be used for foliage exhibit lower toxicities than paraquat and are easily obtainable; they, thus, have come into wide use since 1980. The PAAHs include glufosinate (GLUF), glyphosate (GLYP) and bialaphos (BIAL). In Japan, there are many kinds of products containing GLUF and GLYP commercially available, and the number of suicidal cases using them is increasing [1].

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Introduction: Organophosphorus pesticides (organophosphate pesticides) are being most widely used as insecticides, and thus cause poisoning cases frequently. The organophosphorus pesticides at the early stage, such as parathion and TEPP, had powerful insecticidal effects and high toxicity for both humans and beasts, and caused poisoning accidents during spraying. Although many less toxic organophosphorus pesticides were then developed, the resistance to the pesticides was acquired by insects during their repeated use, resulting in less effectiveness of the pesticides.

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Introduction: Agricultual chemicals include not only pesticides for protecting plants, such as insecticides, germicides, herbicides and rodenticides, but also fertilizers and growth regulating substances being used in agricultural production and horticulture. In poisoning cases with agricultural chemicals, the causative poisons are largely the pesticides. There are many cases, in which the poisoning due to exposure to an organophosphorus pesticide is obvious with clinical symptoms [1].

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Introduction: Oleander (Nerium oleander and Nerium indicum) is a relatively small evergreen tree of an Indian origin, and growing in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa islands in Japan. The plant contains cardiac glycosides in its leaves, stems and flowers and is known as one of poisonous plants; poisoning and fatal cases for domestic animals and humans due to ingestion of this plant were reported [1–6]. The main toxin of oleander is oleandrin. Oleandrin can be measured using cross-reaction of an immunoassay kit for digoxin [1], TLC [2], HPLC [7, 8] and LC/MS [3, 6].

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Introduction: Datura metel a (jimsonweed) is a plant belonging to the Solanacea family; and contains tropane alkaloids (belladonna alkaloids), such as atropineb (dl-hyoscyamine) and hyoscine (dl-scopolamine), in its seeds and every part of the plant. Its seeds and leaves have long been being used as a folk medicine in Japan. Seishu Hanaoka, a Japanese surgeon, first used this plant for general anaesthesia in 1804.

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5.3 II.5.3 Hair dyes by Kazuhiro Koyama and Takaaki Kikuno Introduction Nowadays, numerous kinds of hair dyes are being commercially available. Hair dyes are classified into “reactive hair dyes” with high toxicity and into “adhering hair dyes” with lower toxicity. The reactive hair dyes form a polymerized dye by oxidative reactions inside hair, while the adhering hair dyes only adhere to the outer surface of hair without chemical reaction. In view of poisoning, the reactive hair dyes are objects of interest and of analysis.

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Introduction: Surfactants can be classified into cationic, anionic and nonionic ones. Benzalkonium chlorides are cationic surfectants and being widely used as a disinfectant and germicide using their strong protein-denaturing action. Especially in hospitals, 10 % solution of benzalkonium chloride mixture is being usually used; it is diluted to 0.05–0.1 % solution to be used for various types of disinfection. The drugs are contained in gargles and preservative solutions for contact lenses.

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Introduction: Hypochlorite a (HClO) is a weak acid, which exerts oxidative action; it is being widely used in the salt forms for bleaching and other purposes. Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) aqueous solution is usually used as a disinfectant, bleaching agent, fungicide and ink eraser, and is thus usually included in detergents for laundry. Calcium hypochlorite [Ca(ClO)2, bleaching powder] is also used as a bleaching agent and disinfectant.

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Introduction: β-Lactum antibiotics constitute an important class of antibacterial agents being used extensively for both humans and food-producing animals to treat or prevent infections. The drugs occasionally cause human deaths due to anaphylactic shock during medical treatments, especially when they are parenterally administered without their prior intracutaneous tests. These cases are usually handled as medical accidents (malpractice), and subjected to autopsies and analysis of the drugs used. These antibiotics are composed of cephems ( Table 10.1) and penicillins ( Table 10.

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