COURSE SYLLABUS PHOBH51 & MORBH51 ENGLISH PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY
WEEK TITLE TIME
Lesson 1: Introduction 19.01.2015 1
Lesson 2: The Organs of Speech 26.01.2015 2
02.02.2015 Lesson 3: English Consonants Assignment 1 3
Lesson 4: English vowels & diphthongs 09.02.2015 4
Lesson 5: Phonological analysis 16.02.2015 5
23.02.2015 Lesson 6: Syllable Structure Assignment 2 6
Lesson 7: Adjustments in connected speech 02.03.2015 7
Lesson 8: Weak forms 09.03.2015 8
Lesson 9: Stress 16.03.2015 9
23.03.2015 Lesson 10: Intonation Assignment 3 10
ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY
WEEK TITLE TIME
I. Introduction 30.03.2015 11
II. Identifying Morphemes and Allomorphs III. Free and Bound Morphemes
IV. Word Structure 06.04.2015 12
V. Word Formation VI. Derivation VII. Compounding
Ậ Ề Ọ Ọ Ầ ạ ứ ơ ọ ư ậ ế ụ ừ ẵ ể ẽ ể ườ ế ự ủ ọ ạ ọ Ể Ả Ị QUY Đ NH V TÍNH ĐI M THAM GIA TH O LU N Ữ H C PH N: NG ÂM H C (B1 & B2) ự ươ ng trình đào t o tr c tuy n cũng nh có căn c chính xác h n ng tính tích c c c a h c viên khi tham gia ch ả ệ các h c
ầ ụ ể ư ệ ọ ầ ầ ư ử ế ọ ỳ ể ế ọ ỳ ầ ọ ể ậ ả ầ ủ ọ ể ậ ọ ầ ầ t rõ yêu c u c a h c ph n có tính đi m th o lu n. ả ậ ằ ặ ủ ề ớ t o ch đ m i ho c ậ ổ ề ủ ề ọ ớ ờ ạ ướ ế ầ ọ ạ ẵ c ngày thi k t thúc h c ph n.
ụ ể ượ ố ầ ể ể ộ ố ổ ỗ i đa cho t ng s l n đăng là 10 đi m. ể c tính 2 đi m. Đi m t ị ể ậ ệ ầ ể ầ ọ ữ ỳ ươ ượ ổ ư ể ươ ủ ể c tính nh đi m c a 1 bài ki m tra gi a k (t ng 1 bài Unit Assignment). ng đ ậ ượ ữ ỳ ồ
ả ầ ể ế ể ữ ỳ ố ỳ ể ằ Nh m tăng c ả ọ ậ trong đánh giá k t qu h c t p, Đ i h c Đà N ng s tri n khai vi c tính đi m tham gia m c Th o lu n (Discussion) t ỳ ắ ầ k b t đ u vào tháng 01.2015. ộ N i dung và yêu c u c th nh sau: ự 1. Cách th c hi n: ỳ ớ ạ Đ u k m i, CCE g i k ho ch h c k kèm l u ý h c ph n có tính đi m th o lu n. ả ỹ HV xem k Course Syllabus các h c ph n trong h c k đ bi ự ạ HV đăng nh p vào h c ph n, vào Discussion trên Menu bên trái màn hình, tham gia th o lu n b ng cách t trao đ i v ch đ h c viên cùng l p đã t o s n. Th i h n đăng bài trong Discussion: tr 2. Cách tính đi m: ể M i bài đăng có n i dung c th đ ả Giá tr đi m th o lu n: ư ề • Đ c tính nh đi u ki n c n đ hoàn thành h c ph n. ể ả • T ng đi m th o lu n đ ể Các bài ki m tra gi a k g m: • Các bài Unit Assignment ậ • Đi m th o lu n ả ố ọ K t qu cu i h c ph n: Đi m TB KT gi a k x 30% + Đi m thi cu i k x 70%
ư ự ể ệ ấ R t mong toàn th HV l u ý th c hi n.
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION
ữ ậ ể ỉ ượ c dùng đ ch các ng l ng l o) đ ộ ữ ọ ấ ệ ữ ữ ọ ủ ư ầ ọ ị ọ ộ ườ ậ ọ Phonetics and phonology Two terms are (often loosely) used to refer to linguistic disciplines studying that part of the linguistic sign which de Saussure called the acoustic image: phonetics and phonology. The importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning is something people have been aware of for thousands of years. ị ọ ọ Ng âm h c và âm v h c ỏ ườ ữ Hai thu t ng này (th ngành ngôn ng h c là m t ph n c a các d u hi u ngôn ọ ng mà de Saussure g i là hình nh âm thanh: ng âm h c và âm v h c. T m quan tr ng c a âm thanh nh xe c a ý nghĩa là m t cái gì đó m i ng ẻ ầ ủ ả ủ ứ i đã nh n th c cho hàng
ệ ố ỉ ứ ệ ề ể ủ ể ủ ệ ọ
ồ ạ ộ ,
ệ ế m t s h i ủ ự
ể ế ượ ị ọ ỳ ỉ ơ ữ c, tuy nhiên, đ phân bi
ớ ự ế ế ố ể ủ ấ ế ủ ề ớ ả
ư ộ ộ ọ ố ế t cu i cùng cũng đ c ậ ề ộ ể ự ươ ứ ớ ề ữ ng biên gi ọ ữ ặ ư ở ấ ỳ ượ ạ ạ ế ậ ệ ề ộ ố However, systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with the development of modern sciences. The term phonetics used in connection with such studies comes from Greek and its origins can be traced back to the verb phōnein, to speak, in its turn related to phōnē, sound. The end of the 18th century witnessed a revival of the interest in the studying of the sounds of various languages and the introduction of the term phonology. The latter comes to be, however, distinguished from the former only more than a century later with the development of structuralism which emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled phonemes. The terms continue to be used, however, indiscriminately until the prestige of phonology as a distinct discipline is finally established in the first half of the 20th century. Though there is no universally accepted point of view about a clearcut border line between the respective domains of phonetics and phonology as, indeed, we cannot talk about a phonological system ignoring the phonetic aspects it involves and, on the other hand, any phonetic approach should take into account the phonological system that is represented by any language, most linguists will agree about some fundamental distinctions between the two. ệ ơ t c ngàn năm. Tuy nhiên, các nghiên c u có h th ng v các bài ấ ớ ự phát bi u c a âm thanh ch xu t hi n v i s phát tri n c a ữ ượ ử ụ ữ ế ố ạ khoa h c hi n đ i. Ng âm ng đ c s d ng trong k t n i ừ ế ấ ư ậ ứ ớ ti ng Hy L p và v i các nghiên c u nh v y xu t phát t ừ ở ạ ể ượ ố ủ i phōnein đ ng t c truy tr l ngu n g c c a nó có th đ ạ ế ế ượ ệ ể t nó liên quan đ n đi n tho i, âm đ nói chuy n, đ n l ộ ự ồ ứ ế ỷ ủ ự ế thanh. S k t thúc c a th k 18 đã ch ng ki n ệ ọ ậ ủ sinh c a s quan tâm trong vi c h c t p c a các âm thanh ờ ủ ự ủ c a ngôn ng khác nhau và s ra đ i c a âm v h c k . Sau ộ ệ ớ ự t v i c u ch h n m t đó đ n đ ế ỷ ấ th k sau đó v i s phát tri n c a c u trúc trong đó nh n ọ ủ ạ t y u đ i chi u c a các l p h c c a các m nh vai trò thi ế ụ ượ ị âm thanh có nhãn ghi âm v . Các đi u kho n ti p t c đ c ủ ừ ử ụ s d ng, tuy nhiên, m t cách b a bãi cho đ n uy tín c a âm ượ ệ ị ọ v h c nh m t môn h c riêng bi ế ỷ ử ầ ủ thành l p vào n a đ u c a th k 20. ậ ấ ể ặ ớ i ch p nh n quan đi m v m t M c dù không có đi m gi ữ ườ ng ng v ng i rõ ràng gi a các lĩnh v c t đ ư ể ự ự ị ọ âm h c và âm v h c nh , th c s , chúng ta không th nói ị ỏ ề ộ ệ ố v m t h th ng âm v b qua các khía c nh ng âm nó liên ấ ỳ quan và, m t khác, b t k âm cách ti p c n nên đ a vào tài ả ị ệ ố kho n các h th ng âm v đó đ c đ i di n b i b t k ngôn ữ ọ ấ ẽ ồ ữ ng , ngôn ng h c nh t s đ ng ý v m t s khác bi ườ ữ ả b n gi a hai ng i.
ứ ữ ữ ữ ọ ủ ữ ấ ế ượ ả ữ ả ế ế ệ
ầ ự ủ ấ ể ả ả
ớ ơ ữ ả ủ ứ ỉ ọ ị ọ ế ể ữ ượ ử ụ ề
ề ượ ọ ế ệ ượ ử ụ c s d ng theo cách này trong t ế ớ i; . Đi u này đôi khi đ ọ ứ ộ ộ ử ụ ữ ệ ế ấ ộ đã đóng m t vai trò r t ọ ạ ố ọ
ự ệ ủ ạ ề ả Phonetics Phonetics is the scientific study of speech. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognise different sounds. In the first of these areas, when we study the production of speech sounds we can observe what speakers do (articulatory observation) and we can try to feel what is going on inside our vocal tract (kinaesthetic observation). The second area is where phonetics overlaps with phonology: usually in phonetics we are only interested in sounds that are used in meaningful speech, and phoneticians are interested in discovering the range and variety of sounds used in this way in all the known languages of the world. This is sometimes known as linguistic phonetics. Thirdly, there has always been a need for agreed conventions for using phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds; the International Phonetic Association has played a very important role in this. Finally, the auditory aspect of speech is very important: the ear is capable of making fine discrimination between different sounds, and sometimes it is not possible to define in articulatory terms precisely what the difference is. A good example of this is in vowel classification: while it is important to know the position and shape of the tongue and lips, it is often very important to have been trained in an agreed set of standard auditory qualities that vowels can be reliably related to (other important branches of phonetics are experimental, instrumental and acoustic). ể ấ ấ ề ẩ ấ ậ ố ể ề ữ ể ạ ụ ệ ọ
ơ ả ế ậ ị ị ọ ữ ữ ấ ế ừ ằ ủ ộ ữ ề ể Phonology The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objective is to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. Very few phonologists have ever believed that this would be an adequate analysis of the sound system of a language: it is necessary to go beyond this. One can look at suprasegmental phonology the study of stress, rhythm and intonation, which ượ ị ọ ữ ệ ứ ẳ ị ọ Ng âm h c ể ọ Ng âm h c là nghiên c u khoa h c c a các bài phát bi u. ố Các m i quan tâm trung tâm trong ng âm là nh ng khám ượ ề c s n xu t, làm th nào chúng đ phá v cách âm nói đ c ể ử ụ s d ng trong ngôn ng nói, làm th nào chúng ta có th ghi ớ ế ạ l i âm thanh ti ng nói v i các ký hi u văn b n và làm th ậ nào chúng ta nghe và nh n ra âm thanh khác nhau. ầ Trong l n đ u tiên c a các khu v c này, khi chúng ta nghiên ế ệ ả ứ c u vi c s n xu t âm thanh ti ng nói chúng ta có th quan ấ ữ ễ sát nh ng gì di n gi làm (c u âm quan sát) và chúng ta có ữ ấ ể ả ể ố ắ th c g ng đ c m th y nh ng gì đang x y ra bên trong thanh qu n c a chúng tôi (quan sát kinaesthetic). ự Khu v c th hai là n i mà ng âm trùng v i âm v h c: ườ ng trong ng âm h c, chúng tôi ch quan tâm đ n âm th ữ thanh đ c s d ng trong bài phát bi u có ý nghĩa, và ng ạ ọ âm h c quan tâm đ n vi c khám phá ra nhi u và đa d ng ấ ả ủ t c các c a âm thanh đ ữ ữ ế ngôn ng ti ng th gi c g i là ng ữ âm h c ngôn ng . ầ ị ồ Th ba, có luôn luôn là m t nhu c u cho các h i ngh đ ng ý ạ ệ cho s d ng ký hi u ng âm mà đ i di n cho âm thanh ố ế ộ ệ ti ng nói; Hi p h i phiên âm qu c t ệ quan tr ng trong vi c này. ủ ờ ấ i nói là r t quan Cu i cùng, các khía c nh âm thanh c a l ữ ệ ố ử ố ẹ ả tr ng: tai là có kh năng làm phân bi t đ i x t t đ p gi a ề ể ị âm thanh khác nhau, và đôi khi nó không th đ nh nghĩa v ụ ể ộ ữ ấ c u âm chính xác nh ng gì là s khác bi t. M t ví d đi n ệ hình c a vi c này là trong phân lo i nguyên âm: trong khi ạ ế ị ủ ưỡ ọ t v trí và hình d ng c a l i và đi u quan tr ng là ph i bi ạ ượ ọ ườ c đào t o trong ng là r t quan tr ng đ có đ môi, nó th ẩ ợ ộ ậ m t t p h p th ng nh t v ph m ch t thanh tiêu chu n mà nguyên âm có th liên quan đáng tin c y đ (ngành quan ử tr ng khác v ng âm là th nghi m, nh c c và âm thanh). Phát âm h cọ ấ ữ ạ ộ Các ho t đ ng c b n nh t trong âm v h c là phân tích ng ể ụ t l p nh ng gì các âm v là âm, trong đó m c tiêu là đ thi ị ủ ị ồ và đ n hàng t n kho âm v c a ngôn ng . R t ít nhà âm v ầ ủ ủ ệ ẽ ọ h c đã t ng tin r ng đây s là m t phân tích đ y đ c a h ế ể ượ ầ ộ ố th ng âm thanh c a m t ngôn ng : nó là c n thi t đ v t ườ i ta có th nhìn vào suprasegmental qua đ c đi u này. Ng ệ âm v h c nghiên c u căng th ng, nh p đi u và ng đi u,
ớ ẫ ữ ng pháp ầ ế ị ị ọ t qua đ ể ượ ế ủ ừ ệ ữ ượ
ự ế ượ ơ ể ế ợ ọ ộ ố ệ ữ ế ố ớ ố ị ấ ủ ự ố ậ ể ượ ữ ế has led in recent years to new approaches to phonology such as metrical and autosegmental theory; one can go beyond the phoneme and look into the detailed characteristics of each unit in terms of distinctive features; the way in which sounds can combine in a language is studied in phonotactics and in the analysis of syllable structure. For some phonologists the most important area is the relationships between the different phonemes how they form groups, the nature of the oppositions between them and how those oppositions may be neutralised. i đ i l p có th đ c vô hi u ươ mà đã d n trong nh ng năm g n đây v i các ph ư ạ ự ộ ớ ể đ ng; ai m i đ âm v h c nh lý thuy t metrical và đo n t ặ ữ c nh ng âm v và nhìn vào các đ c tính có th v ứ ặ ị ề t; cách th c mà chi ti t c a t ng đ n v v tính năng đ c bi ộ c nghiên âm thanh có th k t h p trong m t ngôn ng đ ệ ấ ứ c u trong k t âm h c và trong vi c phân tích các c u trúc ị ọ ọ âm ti t. Đ i v i m t s âm v h c các lĩnh v c quan tr ng ấ ế nh t là m i quan h gi a các âm v khác nhau làm th nào ữ ọ ả chúng hình thành các nhóm, b n ch t c a s đ i l p gi a h ệ ườ ố ậ và làm th nào nh ng ng hóa.
LESSON 2: THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Glossary:
ườ ề ng c a h , nhi u ng
ữ ạ ắ ử ừ chúng tôi s ườ ầ ả In addition to their normal names, many of the parts of the organs of speech have fancy names derived from Latin and Greek. The adjectives we use to describe sounds made with each part are usually based on the Latin/Greek name. ng ệ ừ c th c hi n t ng ph n th ạ ộ ố ườ ủ ọ i trong s các b Ngoài cái tên bình th ư ậ ủ ơ ậ ph n c a c quan ngôn lu n có nh ng cái tên a thích b t ế ồ ừ ế ti ng Latin và ti ng Hy L p. Các tính t ngu n t ượ ể ụ d ng đ mô t âm thanh đ ượ ự đ ự c d a trên tên Latin / Hy L p.
ả ườ ọ ặ In phonetics, the terms velum, pharynx, larynx, and dorsum are used as often or more often than the simpler names. c s d ng th ơ ơ ơ ặ ư ớ ẩ ầ ườ ng xuyên ho c th ả ừ ữ ỉ ng ch màng kh u cái, h u h ng, thanh ượ ử ụ ng ữ ế n núi ph nang ả ắ
ấ Ở ộ ố ườ m t s ng ữ i khác r t nh ). Đây là nh ng s nh ng ng ự ữ Alveolar ridge a short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle of the roof of the mouth. (In some people it's quite abrupt, in others very slight.) This is the alveolar ridge. Sounds which involve the area between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars. ượ ọ c g i là alveolars. ữ Trong ng âm, các t qu n, và m t l ng đ xuyên h n so v i nh ng cái tên đ n gi n h n. ườ s ộ ộ ự m t kho ng cách ng n phía sau răng hàm trên là m t s thay ổ ệ ủ ộ đ i trong các góc c a vòm mi ng. ( i nó khá đ t ế ẹ ườ ộ ở ữ ườ ng t, n núi ph ế nang. Âm thanh đó liên quan đ n khu v c gi a răng hàm trên và ườ s n núi này đ (Hard) vòm mi ngệ
ị ủ ẩ ầ ứ ườ ủ ề ậ ữ ứ ế ậ ph n c ng c a vòm mi ng. Thu t ng "kh u v " c a chính nó ệ th ệ ng đ c p đ n các vòm mi ng c ng. (Hard) palate the hard portion of the roof of the mouth. The term "palate" by itself usually refers to the hard palate.
ẩ ủ ứ ệ ỉ ề ạ ệ ẩ ầ ưỡ i ch m ch màng kh u cái trong các âm thanh / k /, / g / và / ể ể ế ẩ ỉ ạ ộ ở ở ử ị ẫ ớ ỗ Soft palate/velum the soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate. The tongue hits the velum in the sounds /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/. The velum can also move: if it lowers, it creates an opening that allows air to flow out through the nose; if it stays raised, the opening is blocked, and no air can flow through the nose. ệ mũi; n u nó v n l n lên, vi c m c a b khóa, và không ể ư ỉ Soft palate / ch màng kh u cái ằ ph n m m c a vòm mi ng, n m phía sau vòm mi ng c ng. L n /. Các ch màng kh u cái cũng có th di chuy n: n u nó làm ả gi m, nó t o ra m t khe h cho phép không khí thoát ra ngoài ế qua l khí có th l u thông qua mũi.
ưỡ i gà ề ưỡ m t sau c a vòm mi ng. Các l i gà ỏ ở ặ ề ệ ữ ế L bài, đi u dangly nh rung trong âm r trong nhi u ph ủ ươ ng ng ti ng Pháp. Uvula the small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate. The uvula vibrates during the r sound in many French dialects.
ữ ố ủ ưỡ ứ ườ ủ ọ ế ầ Y t h u khoang gi a g c c a l i và các b c t ng c a h ng phía trên. Pharynx the cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upper throat.
ưỡ i Tongue ề ặ ẳ ủ ưỡ ỉ ứ ầ Tongue blade the flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip. L các b m t ph ng c a l i ch đ ng sau đ u.
ữ ệ i nh ng vòm mi ng c ng và ơ ể ầ ề ướ ầ ủ ơ ể ể ể ứ t là ph n sau c a c th (do đó i"), di chuy n đ làm cho các ụ
ấ ủ ưỡ ổ ọ Tongue body/dorsum the main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate. The body, specifically the back part of the body (hence "dorsum", Latin for "back"), moves to make vowels and many consonants. Tongue root the lowest part of the tongue in the throat C th Tongue / dorsum ủ ưỡ ằ i, n m bên d ph n chính c a l ệ ơ ể ặ m m. Các c th , đ c bi ở ạ ế "dorsum", ti ng Latin "tr l ề nguyên âm và ph âm nhi u. ố ưỡ G c l i ấ ầ ph n th p nh t c a l i trong c h ng
ệ t ắ ướ ố ủ ưỡ i g c c a l ố ả ắ ườ ả ắ Epiglottis the fold of tissue below the root of the tongue. The epiglottis helps cover the larynx during swallowing, making sure (usually!) ể Ti u thi ấ ủ g p c a mô d thanh qu n trong quá trình nu t, làm cho ch c ch n (th i. Các n p thanh qu n giúp che ng!)
ứ ạ ổ ộ ế ả ắ ắ that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs. A few languages use the epiglottis in making sounds. English is fortunately not one of them. ữ ử Th c ăn mà đi vào d dày và không ph i. M t vài ngôn ng s ụ d ng trong n p thanh qu n làm cho âm thanh. Ti ng Anh là ố ọ may m n không ai trong s h .
ả ổ ọ ng hàng không vào ph i. H có th ể ề ủ ộ Vocal folds/vocal cords folds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs. They can vibrate against each other, providing much of the sound during speech. ế ấ N p g p Vocal / dây thanh ườ ế n p mô tr i dài trên các đ ấ ớ rung đ ng v i nhau, cung c p nhi u c a âm thanh trong bài phát bi u.ể
ở ữ ộ ừ ầ ượ ổ ứ ch c ở ữ Glottis the opening between the vocal cords. During a glottal stop, the vocal cords are held together and there is no opening between them. ử ầ C a h u ệ vi c m gi a các dây thanh âm. Trong m t d ng thanh h u, các dây thanh âm đ c t ớ v i nhau và không có m gi a chúng.
ữ ượ ớ i là nh ng v t s ng đ nam gi ế ư ả ướ ủ Larynx the structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords. The "Adam's apple" in males is the bump formed by the front part of the larynx. Thanh qu nả ứ ấ ả các c u trúc ch a và thao túng các dây thanh âm. Nh ng "qu ở ủ táo c a Adam" c hình thành ầ ở b i các ph n phía tr ữ c c a thanh qu n.
ổ ứ ụ ể ấ ế ể ứ ử ụ ươ ự ư ọ ượ ọ ủ ừ không ừ ở t carbon dioxide vào không khí th ra. T ấ ủ ọ ể ạ ướ ng s
ươ ọ ắ
ỉ ử ụ ề ữ ả ộ ỷ ệ l ấ ư ủ ọ ả ẽ ấ ạ ỏ ế ề ệ Lungs the biological function of the lungs is to absorb oxygen from air breathed in and to excrete carbon dioxide into the air breathed out. From the speech point of view, their major function is to provide the driving force that compresses the air we use for generating speech sounds. They are similar to large sponges, and their size and shape are determined by the rib cage that surrounds them, so that when the ribs are pressed down the lungs are compressed and when the ribs are lifted the lungs expand and fill with air. Although they hold a considerable amount of air (normally several litres, though this differs greatly between individuals) we use only a small proportion of their capacity when speaking we would find it very tiring if we had to fill and empty the lungs as we spoke, and in fact it is impossible for us to empty our lungs completely. ể ả Ph iổ các ch c năng sinh h c c a ph i là đ h p th oxy t khí hít vào và bài ti ự quan đi m nói trên, ch c năng chính c a h là cung c p cho l c ượ ng lái xe mà nén không khí chúng ta s d ng đ t o ra âm l ể ớ c và hình nói. Chúng t ng t nh b t bi n l n, và kích th ế ị ườ ạ ươ ở ủ n bao d ng c a chúng đ c quy t đ nh b i khung x ố ươ ổ ượ ườ ượ ọ ể ng s quanh h , đ khi các x c c ép xu ng ph i đ n đ ở ộ ầ ổ ườ ượ nén và khi các x c nâng lên ph i m r ng và đ y n đ ng s ể ủ ữ ộ ố ượ ặ ng đáng k c a m t s l không khí. M c dù h n m gi ấ ề ặ ườ ng là vài lít, m c dù đi u này khác nhau r t không khí (th ỏ nh nhi u gi a các cá nhân), chúng tôi ch s d ng m t t ệ trong kh năng c a h khi nói chúng ta s th y nó r t m t ổ m i n u chúng tôi ph i đi n vào và làm s ch ph i nh chúng ể ự ế nó là không th cho chúng tôi đã nói chuy n , và trong th c t ổ ủ ẩ tôi đ có s n ph m nào c a chúng tôi hoàn toàn ph i.
ề ầ ị ặ u răng là b ch n trên i và màng nh y ị ứ ớ ủ Khoang mi ngệ ầ ủ ệ ộ m t ph n c a mi ng phía sau răng và n ẩ ở b i kh u v c ng và m m và bên d ầ ế ố k t n i nó v i ph n bên trong c a hàm d ướ ướ ủ ưỡ i c a l ướ i. Oral cavity the part of the mouth behind the teeth and gums that is bounded above by the hard and soft palates and below by the tongue and the mucous membrane connecting it with the inner part of the mandible.
ủ ở ế ổ mũi đ n c hai bên c a vách ngăn mũi, kéo dài t ằ ủ ộ ọ ừ ệ ữ Khoang mũi khoang ọ h ng, và n m gi a sàn c a h p s và vòm mi ng. Nasal cavity the cavity on either side of the nasal septum, extending from the nose to the pharynx, and lying between the floor of the cranium and the roof of the mouth.
LESSON 3: ENGLISH CONSONANTS
Glossary:
Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some location than it usually is. We call this narrowing a constriction. Which consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the vocal tract the constriction is and how narrow it is. It also depends on a few other things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is flowing through the nose.
We classify consonants along three major dimensions:
(cid:0) (cid:0) (cid:0) place of articulation manner of articulation voicing
For example, for the sound d:
(cid:0) (cid:0)
(cid:0) Place of articulation = alveolar. (The narrowing of the vocal tract involves the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge.) Manner of articulation = oral stop. (The narrowing is complete the tongue is completely blocking off airflow through the mouth. There is also no airflow through the nose.) Voicing = voiced. (The vocal folds are vibrating.)
Places of articulation
The place of articulation (or POA) of a consonant specifies where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs. From front to back, the POAs that English uses are:
Bilabial In a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other. English p, b, and m are bilabial stops.
The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical p or b. (An m would look the same, but with the velum lowered to let out through the nasal passages.)
The sound w involves two constrictions of the vocal tract made simultaneously. One of them is lip rounding, which you can think of as a bilabial approximant.
Labiodental
In a labiodental consonant, the lower lip approaches or touches the upper teeth. English f and v are bilabial fricatives.
The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical f or v.
Dental
In a dental consonant, the tip or blade of the tongue approaches or touches the upper teeth. English θ and ð are dental fricatives. There are actually a couple of different ways of forming these sounds:
(cid:0)
The tongue tip can approach the back of the upper teeth, but not press against them so hard that the airflow is completely blocked.
(cid:0)
The blade of the tongue can touch the bottom of the upper teeth, with the tongue tip protruding between the teeth still leaving enough space for a turbulent airstream to escape. This kind of θ and ð is often called interdental.
The diagram to the right shows a typical interdental θ or ð.
Alveolar
In an alveolar consonant, the tongue tip (or less often the tongue blade) approaches or touches the alveolar ridge, the ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. The English stops t, d, and n are formed by completely blocking the airflow at this place of articulation. The fricatives s and zare also at this place of articulation, as is the lateral approximant l.
The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during plosive t or d.
Postalveolar
In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made immediately behind the alveolar ridge. The constriction can be made with either the tip or the blade of the tongue. The English fricatives ∫and ʒ are made at this POA, as are the corresponding affricates t∫and dʒ.
The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during the first half (the stop half) of an affricate t∫ordʒ.
Retroflex
In a retroflex consonant, the tongue tip is curled backward in the mouth. English ɹ is a retroflex approximant the tongue tip is curled up toward the postalveolar region (the area immediately behind the alveolar ridge).
The diagram to the right shows a typical English retroflex ɹ.
Both the sounds we've called "postalveolar" and the sounds we've called "retroflex" involve the region behind the alveolar ridge. In fact, at least for English, you can think of retroflexes as being a subtype of postalveolars, specifically, the type of postalveolars that you make by curling your tongue tip backward.
Palatal
In a palatal consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate. English j is a palatal approximant the tongue body approaches the hard palate, but closely enough to create turbulence in the airstream.
Velar
In a velar consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft palate, or velum. English k,g, and ŋ are stops made at this POA.
The diagram to the right shows a typical k or g though where exactly on the velum the tongue body hits will vary a lot depending on the surrounding vowels.
As we have seen, one of the two constrictions that form a w is a bilabial approximant. The other is a velar approximant: the tongue body approaches the soft palate.
Glottal
The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. In an /h/, this opening is narrow enough to create some turbulence in the airstream flowing past the vocal folds. For this reason, /h/ is often classified as a glottal fricative.
Manners of articulation The manner of articulation dimension is essentially everything else: how narrow the constriction is, whether air is flowing through the nose, and whether the tongue is dropped down on one side. Stops Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air. Since the sudden release of the pentup air creates a small explosive sound, stops are also called plosives. Stops may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the stop) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the stop). Here is a list of the stops in English t, d, k,g, p and b.
θ
Fricatives In the stop t, the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow. In s, the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't quite touch it. There is still enough of an opening for airflow to continue, but the opening is narrow enough that it causes the escaping air to become turbulent (hence the hissing sound of the s). In a fricative consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction approach get close enough to each other to create a turbulent air stream. The fricatives of English are f, v,
∫ and ʒ.
, ð, s, z,
Approximants In an approximant, the articulators involved in the constriction are further apart still than they are for a fricative. The articulators are still closer to each other than when the vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are not even close enough to cause the air passing between them to become turbulent. The approximants of English are w, j,
,ɹ andl.
Affricates An affricate is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative portion. In English t∫, the airflow is first interrupted by a stop which is very similar to t (though made a bit further back). But instead of finishing the articulation quickly and moving directly into the next sound, the tongue pulls away from the stop slowly, so that there is a period of time immediately after the stop where the constriction is narrow enough to cause a turbulent airstream. In t∫, the period of turbulent airstream following the stop portion is the same as the fricative ∫. English dʒ is an affricate like t∫, but voiced.
Laterals Pay attention to what you are doing with your tongue when you say the first consonant of /li:f/ leaf. Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge (or perhaps your upper teeth), but this doesn't make /l/ a stop. Air is still flowing during an /l/ because the side of your tongue has dropped down and left an opening. (Some people drop down the right side of their tongue during an /l/; others drop down the left; a few drop down both sides.) Sounds which involve airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals. Sounds which are not lateral are called central. /l/ is the only lateral in English. The other sounds of English, like most of the sounds of the world's languages, are central. More specifically, /l/ is a lateral approximant. The opening left at the side of the tongue is wide enough that the air flowing through does not become turbulent.
Voicing
The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating. The vocal folds may be held against each other at just the right tension so that the air flowing past them from the lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other. We call this process voicing. Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced. Sounds made without vocal fold vibration are said to be voiceless. There are several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing that is, the two sounds have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has vocal fold vibration and the other doesn't. The θ of thigh and the ð of thy are one such pair. The others are:
θ ∫ p t k f s Voiceless ʒ g b d v ð z t∫ dʒ Voiced
The other sounds of English do not come in voiced/voiceless pairs. h is voiceless, and has no voiced counterpart. The other English consonants are all voiced: ɹ, l, w, j, m, n,and ŋ.
Brief descriptions of English consonants
Voicing Spelling Place of Articulation Manner of Articulation
/p/ voiceless bilabial stop / plosive It is spelt p: plane or pp: opposite and only exceptionally gh in hiccough. The letter p is silent when followed by another obstruent or a nasal in wordinitial position:psalm, pterodactyl, pneumatic.
/b/ voiced bilabial stop/plosive It is spelt b: bar or bb: ribbon The letter is silent in final position after m:limb, crumb, dumb and in front of t in words of Latin origin where the sound has long been lost: debt, doubt, subtle.
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop/plosive It is spelt with t: toe, with tt: cutter or withth: Thomas, Thames
/d/ voiced alveolar stop/plosive It is spelt d: read or dd: adder
/k/ voiceless velar stop/plosive The sound can be represented by the letter c:comb or by cc: accuse, by k: kill, by ck: pick, by ch: architect, by qu: queen. In words like muscle and knave the letters can k are silent.
/g/ voiced velar stop/plosive The consonant can be rendered by g: get bygg: begged, or by g followed by h, as inghastly, by ua, ue or ui, as in guarantee,guess or linguist, respectively. The voiced counterpart of /ks/, /gz/ can also be rendered by x in words like example.
/t /∫ voiceless postalveolar affricate
The phoneme is represented graphically bych: charm, chinchilla, rich or tch: kitchen, bitch or by t followed by u: creature, culturewhen the plosive is palatalized. In words like habitual, sanctuary the pronunciation with an affricate is a variant of /tj/. Exceptionally, we can have ce or cz as graphic representations of the sound in (violin)cello or Czech.
voiced postalveolar affricate /dʒ/
It can be rendered graphically by j: justice, John, rejoice, pyjamas, by ge: gesture, agent, sage, by gi: giraffe, rigid; and gy:gymnastics. In certain words it can be spelt d followed byu: gradual, individual, procedure/al. In all these cases, however, there is an alternative pronunciation /dj/. In a number of proper names or common nouns originating in proper names ch is read /dʒ/: Norwich, Greenwich, S/sandwich. Another spelling can be dg in words like ridgeor edge.
/m/ voiced bilabial nasal It can be spelt with m or mm: come, common
/n/ voiced alveolar nasal It is spelt n or nn: dean, annual.
nasal /ŋ/ voiced velar This phoneme has a limited distribution: it always precedes the voiceless velar plosive or occurs in syllablefinal position in front of an elided /g/: tank, ankle, sing, long.
/f/ voiceless labiodental fricative The sound can be spelt f: fine, fringe, feud, loaf, stifle, ff: effort, snuff, ph: physics, graph, or even gh: enough, tough. The word lieutenant /lef’tenənt/ is a particular case.
/v/ voiced labiodental fricative It is spelt with the letter v: vein, live, voice. (Exceptionally, by ph in Stephen, nephew andf in of).
/ /θ voiceless dental fricative The sound is rendered graphically by th: thin, method, path. The sound often occurs in clusters difficult to pronounce: eighths,, depths, lengths..
/ð/ voiced dental fricative The sound is always spelt th, like its voiceless counterpart: within, then, they..
/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative
It is spelt s, ss or c in front of e, i or y: sour, say, hiss, assign, ceiling, cellar, cigarette, precise, cypress, bicycle. Sometimes the spelling can be sce, sci orscy: science, scent, scene, scythe; s is silent in words like corps, island, viscount.
/z/ voiced alveolar fricative
The sound is spelt z. It is often spelt s when the sound does not occur in initial positon:nose, easy, desire, and, exceptionally, tz intzar. Similarly, when it marks the plural of nouns ending in a voiced sound (e.g. boys, balls, ribs) or when it is the voiced allomorph of the 3rd person singular present indicative of verbs ending in a voiced sound (e.g. plays, calls, adds) the spelling is s. Exceptionally, the sound can be spelt doubless in words like dissolve, possess.
/∫/ voiceless postalveolar fricative
It is often spelt sh in words like shoe, cushionor push. It can also be spelt s: sure, sugar or ss:pressure, mission or ci: ancient, delicious,sci: conscious, ce: ocean, si: pension, mansion, ti: tuition, retribution. It is a variant of /sj/ in words like issue, tissue. In words of French origin the sound is speltch: champagne, charade, chargé, moustache, attaché. The same spelling is used in proper names like Charlotte, Chicago, Chicoutimi, Michigan.
voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/
It can be spelt either s when followed by u: visual or i: decision, or z if followed by u:seizure or ge: massage, espionage. In words like casual the alternative pronunciation /zj/ is possible, while in other cases the fricative is replaced by the affricate /dʒ/ (e.g. garage).
voiced retroflex /ɹ/ approximant The sound is spelt r: rain, ring or rr: carry, marry
/j/ voiced palatal approximant The sound may be spelt y (as in year) while in words spelt with u, ue, ui, ew, eu and eauread as the long vowel /u:/ the palatal sound is often inserted.
/w/ voiced labial + velar approximant It can be rendered graphically either by the letter w (the most common case) (e.g. sweet) or by u (e.g. quite).
/l/ voiced alveolar lateral approximant The phoneme is spelt either l or ll in words like link or call, for instance. In many words, however, before plosive sounds like /k/ or /d/ – cf. chalk, could; or before nasals like /m/ or /n/ – cf. calm, Lincoln; the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/ – cf. calf, calves; the lateral sound is not pronounced.
/h/ voiceless glottal fricative The conservative spelling of English has preserved the letter h after r in words of Greek origin where no h sound or aspiration is heard nowadays: rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhinal, rhinoceros, rhombus, rhyme, rhythm.
Assignment 1: Click here to accomplish Assignment 1.
LESSON 3: ENGLISH CONSONANTS
Choose the best answer. Tick A, B, C, or D. 1. People have been aware of the importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning for ... A. a very long time B. some years C. a hundred years D. a thousand years 2. Systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with A. the modern life B. the development of foreign language learning C. the development of modern sciences D. the development of tape recorders 3. The term phonetics comes from the ... A. Geek language B. Italian language C. English language D. Latin language 4. The term phonology first appeared in ... A. the end of the 19th century B. the end of the 18th century C. the early of the 19th century D. the early of the 18th century 5. The structuralism emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled ... A. phonetics B. phonology C. phonemes D. phones 6. The terms phonetics and phonology was used indiscriminately until... A. the first half of the 19th century B. the first half of the 20th century C. the end of the 19th century D. the end of the 20th century 7. Some fundamental distinctions between phonetics and phonology will be agreed about by ... A. most teachers B. most students C. most language users D. most linguists 8. Which of the following is NOT CORRECT? The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of ... A. how speech sounds are produced B. how they are used in written language C. how we can record speech sounds with written symbols D. how we hear and recognise different sounds 9. Articulatory phonetics generally refers to the study of how humans ... A. produce speech sounds B. perceive speech sound C. transmit speech sounds D. interact with speech sounds 10. The International Phonetic Association has played a very important role in ... A. designing conventions for using sounds in speech B. using phonetic symbols for speech sounds C. making use of phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds D. designing conventions for using phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds 11. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the ... A. production of phonetic sounds of words of a language B. hearing of phonetic sounds of words of a language C. transmittion of phonetic sounds of words of a language D. description of phonetic sounds of words of a language 12. Which of the following statement is NOT CORRECT? A. The objective of phonemic analysis to establish what the phonetic sounds are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. B. The objective of phonemic analysis to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. C. The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis. D. A large number of phonologists have believed that it is necessary to go beyond phonemic analysis.
13. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to suprasegmental phonology ? A. stress B. rhythm C. intonation D. transcription 14. "Distinctive features" are mainly concerned with A. the detailed transcription of each unit B. the detailed characteristics of each unit C. the detailed articulation of each unit D. the detailed rules of each unit 15. Phonotactics is mainly concerned with the way in which ... A. sounds can combine in a language B. consonants can combine in a language C. vowels can combine in a language D. words can combine in a language 16. The soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate is called the ... A. uvula B. velum C. palate D. cavity 17. The lowest part of the tongue in the throat is called the ... A. epiglottis B. tongue root C. dorsum D. tongue blade 18. The small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate is called the ... A. uvula B. larynx C. glottis D. dorsum 19. The hard portion of the roof of the mouth is called the ... A. velum B. uvula C. hard palate D. soft palate 20. The structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords is called the ... A. pharynx B. larynx C. velum D. glottis 21. The fold of tissue below the root of the tongue is called the ... A. epiglottis B. pharynx C. larynx D. vocal cords 22. The main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate is called the ... A. tongue blade B. dorsum C. tongue D. tongue root 23. The opening between the vocal cords is called the A. oral cavity B. nasal cavity C. glottis D. epiglottis 24. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the major dimensions of consonant classification? A. place of articulation B. pronunciation C. voicing D. manner of articulation 25. In producing a consonant there is a ........... in the vocal tract. A. construction B. constriction C. opening D. height 26. In a .............. consonant, the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other. A. dental
B. labiodental C. bilabial D. palatal 27. In a ............. consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft palate. A. bilabial B. velar C. postaveolar D. glottal 28. In a ............. consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate. A. palatal B. velar C. dental D. labiodental 29. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT? A. The manner of articulation tells how narrow the constriction is. B. The manner of articulation tells where in the vocal tract the constriction occurs. C. The manner of articulation tells whether the tongue is dropped down on one side. D. The manner of articulation tells whether air is flowing through the nose. 30. The English t, d, and k are.... A. fricatives B. stops C. nasals D. approximants 31. In a ............... consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction approach get close enough to each other to create a turbulent airstream. A. fricative B. stop C. nasal D. lateral 32. The major difference between the two consonants /f/ and /v/ is the ...... A. manner of articulation B. place of articulation C. voicing D. sound class 33. Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be .......... A. voiced B. voiceless C. lateral D. affricate 34. The place of articulation of a consonant specifies .......... A. whether air is flowing through the nose B. whether the tongue is dropped down on one side C. where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs D. how narrow the constriction is 35. /h/ is a ............. sound. A. stop B. fricative C. voiceless D. B and C are correct 36. /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/ are ............ A. oral stops B. nasal stops C. lateral sounds D. approximants 37. Letter h is silent in the word .......... A. hear B. history C. honour D. horn 38. The letter x in the word example is pronounced as ......... A. /ks/ B. /gz/ C. /s/ D. /z/ 39. Which of the CAPITALISED letters in the following pairs have the same pronunciation? A. poSSession miSSion B. enouGH thorouGH
C. seiZure garaGE D. iSland hiStory 40. In which of the following words the CAPITALISED letter is silent? A. linGuist B. corpS C. Plane D. thoughT
LESSON 4: ENGLISH VOWELS & DIPHTHONGS
Glossary:
In the last lesson, you were introduced to the classification of consonant sounds. The classification of consonants were shown to be based on three aspects of articulation: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. In this lesson, you will be introduced to vowel sounds and diphthongs.
English vowels
Vowels are the class of sound which makes the least obstruction to the flow of air. They are almost always found at the centre of a syllable, and it is rare to find any sound other than a vowel which is able to stand alone as a whole syllable.
Classification of vowels
The classification of vowels is based on five major aspects: tongue height, tongue backness, lip rounding, vowel length and the tenseness of the articulators.
Tongue Height
Vowels are classified in terms of how much space there is between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, which is determined by the height of the tongue.
There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: high, low, and mid.
/w/ /e/ /æ/
In English, examples of high vowels are /w/, /i:/, //, /u:/. These are vowels with a relatively narrow space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Examples of low vowels are /æ/, /Y:/, /Z/, /]:/. These are vowels with a relatively wide space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Examples of mid vowels are /e/, /∂/, /f:/, /(cid:158) /. These are vowels whose tongue positions are roughly between the high and low vowels.
These classifications are quite relative, as different languages have different canonical tongue heights for different classifications.
As you can see from the above diagrams, the tongue height of the high vowel /w/ is much higher than that for the low vowel /æ/, while the tongue height for the mid vowel /e/ lies somewhere in between the two.
Tongue Backness
The second aspect of vowel classification that you will be introduced to is that of tongue backness. Vowels are classified in terms of how far the raised body of the tongue is from the back of the mouth, which is called the backness of the tongue.
There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: front, back, and central.
In English, examples of front vowels are /w/, /i:/, /e/, /æ/. These vowels are articulated relatively forward in the mouth. Examples of back vowels are //, /u:/, /Y:/, /Z/, /]:/. These vowels are articulated relatively far back in the mouth.. Examples of central vowels are /∂/, /f:/, /(cid:158) /. These are vowels whose tongue positions are roughly between the front and back vowels.
These classifications, like the tongue heights, are quite relative, as different languages have different canonical tongue backnesses for different classifications.
As illustration of tongue backness, observe the following diagrams for the vowels /w/, /u:/.
/i:/ /u:/
As you can see from the diagrams, the articulation of the front vowel /i:/ is much farther forward than that for the back vowel /u:/.
Lip Rounding
Another aspect of vowel classification is the presence or absence of lip rounding. Some vowels, such as the vowels /u:/ and /]:/, are formed with a high degree of lip rounding. Such vowels are called rounded vowels. Some vowels, such as /i:/ and /e/, are formed without such rounding, and are called unrounded vowels.
Vowel Length
Vowel length is the length of time it takes to pronounce the vowel. We can measure this length in centiseconds hundredths of a second.
(cid:0) (cid:0) Short English vowels: /w/, /(cid:157) /, /æ/, /Z/, /e/, /∂/, /(cid:158) / Long English vowels: /i:/, /u:/, /Y:/, /]:/, /f:/
Some languages, like English, vary the lengths of their vowels according to certain rules. Below you can see the typical or average length of some of the vowels in English.
As we will see, there is not a clearcut long/short distinction. Typically, each vowel has its own length, with for
instance /æ/ holding a halfway position between lax and tense vowels. Also, lengths of different vowels overlap in different contexts: looking at /i:/ and /w/ we found the following situation. The lengths are given in centiseconds.
Tense vs. Lax
Another aspect of vowel classification is commonly characterized in terms of the tenseness or laxness of the articulators. Some vowels, such as the vowels /i:/ and /e/, are formed with a high degree of tenseness. Such vowels are called tense vowels. Some vowels, such as /∂/ and /(cid:158) /, are formed without a high degree of tenseness, and are called lax vowels.
The general rule is:
(cid:0) (cid:0) , /w∂/, /(cid:157) ∂/, /ε ∂/) are lax vowels (/w/, /(cid:157) /, /æ/, /Z/, /e/, /∂/, /(cid:158) /) are short. tense (/i:/, /u:/, /Y:/, /]:/, /f:/) vowels (including diphthongs: /ew/, /aw/, /]w/, /∂(cid:157) /,/a(cid:157)/ variable in length, and often longer than lax vowels.
English vowel charts
(Source: University of Stirling, Centre for English Language Teaching)
Descriptions of the English simple (“pure”) vowels
English front vowels
There are four front vowel phonemes in English: /w/, /i:/, /e/, /æ/
Sound Description Distribution Spelling
/i:/ initial, medial and final: east, dean, sea front, close (high), long, tense, unrounded
e: economy, remark ee: eel, see, feet, ea: each, seal, plea ie: fiend ei: seizing i: machine ey: key ay: quay eo: people oe: Oedipus eau: Beauchamp
/w/ more retracted, front, short, lax, unrounded initial, medial and final: ink, kill, aptly
i: ill, tick y: syntax, party u: minute a: private o: women ay: Friday (a reduced unstressed vowel)
front, short, lax, unrounded initial or medial: end, tell /e/
initial or medial: ant, cat lowest, front, short, lax, unrounded /æ/ e: elf, fell ea: lead (n. = plumb), head or bread a: ate (the past tense of eat), many, any, Thames or Pall Mall a: act, fat ai: plait, plaid
English central vowels
There are three central vowel phonemes in English: /ž/, /∂/, /f:/
/(cid:158)/ a central halfopen, short, lax, unrounded vowel
wordinitial and medial position:utter, subtle. It never occurs in word or syllablefinal position. u: under, but o: come, front, honey ou: courage, southern, rough, tough oo: blood, flood
oe: does
/∂/ a central, mid, lax, unrounded vowel
freely occurring in all basic positions, but only in unstressed syllables:aside, collide, rather
The reduced form of any simple vowel or even diphthong (seefatality, above) in English and can consequently be rendered in writing by any vowel letter with the exception of y which only represents the semivowel j or the vowel i.
/f:/
central, mid, long, tense central vowel
in all three basic positions, very often in monosyllabic words: err, first, curtain, fur, refer
ir: bird ur: burn er: fern yr: myrtle ear: learn our: journey, journal, scourge
English back vowels There are five back vowel phonemes in standard English: //, /u:/, /Y:/, /Z/, /]:/
/Y:/ initial, medial and final: are, cart, far a more advanced, low, long, tense, unrounded vowel
ar: jar, carpet al: palm, calm, balm af (ff): after, staff ass: pass, class ath: path, bath as or an followed by another consonant: past, demand Exceptionally, other letters: aunt, Berkeley, hearth, father, sergeant, memoir , barrage
/Z/ short, lax, open and slightly rounded initial or medial:on, pot
/]:/ initial, medial and final: awful, caught, flaw
a long, tense vowel, more rounded than /Z/. It is the degree of aperture being between open and halfopen.
//
o: hot, lot ou: cough a: want au: laurel aw: awl, drawn, thaw au: August, taught or: for, sore, port oor: floor, door oa: board, broad, coarse, hoard ough: (n)ought, sought, wrought ou: course, source a: water, wrath u: push, cushion, pull, put o: wolf, Worcester oo: look, book, foot ou: would, could, should
Being restricted to medial position; never occurring in initial position and only exceptionally in final position. short, lax, rounded vowel which is considerably closer than /]:/, its degree of aperture being a little bit higher than the cardinal halfclose.
/u:/
the highest back vowel of English. It is a long, tense, rounded vowel. initial, medial and final: oom, u: rule, music, mutiny, deluge oomph, ooze, ugh, uhlan; ui: suit, fruit rude, baboon, crew, chew, o: to, who, ado
tatoo
oo: root, taboo ou: route, through, routine, douche oe: shoe, canoe, manoeuvre eau: beauty eu: feu
English Diphthongs
Classification of diphthongs
Diphthongs are described as sequences of two vowels pronounced together, the two vocalic elements being members of the same syllable. The most important feature of a diphthong is that it contains a glide from one vowel quality to another one. According to the position of the more prominent element in the diphthong we can divide diphthongs into falling diphthongs – if the prominent element comes first – and rising diphthongs – if the less prominent element comes first. All English diphthongs belong to the first category. Diphthongs can then be opening if the degree of aperture increases with the glide or closing if the less prominent vowel is closer than the first. We can also differentiate between wide diphthongs – those in which the glide implies a more radical movement of the speech organs and narrow diphthongs – if the two vocalic elements occupy neighbouring positions on the vowel chart. There are also centring diphthongs – if the glide is from a marginal vowel in the vowel chart – either back or front to a central vowel. To make it simple, we can say that there are three diphthongs ending in / w/ (/ew/, /aw/, /]w/), two ending in /∂/ (/w∂/, /(cid:157) ∂/, / ∂ε /) and three ending in /(cid:157) / (/∂(cid:157) /, /a(cid:157) /).
The easiest way to remember them is in terms of three groups divided as in this diagram:
The descriptions of English diphthongs
The centring diphthongs: /w∂/, /(cid:157) ∂/, / ∂/ε
Sound Description Distribution Spelling
/ ∂/ε
initial, medial and final: air, scarce, fare a centring, falling, narrow, in most cases opening diphthong
/(cid:157) ∂/
a centring, falling, narrow, opening diphthong only in word medial: jewel or wordfinal position:sure
/w∂/ initial, medial and final: ear, deer, tier a centring, falling, narrow, opening diphthong air: air, fair, chair, dairy, fairy are: fare, mare, care, care ear: bear, wear, tear (v.) aer: aerial, aeroplane ere: there eir: their, heir ay: prayer, layer, mayor ure: endure, mature, cure, pure oor: poor, moor ou: gourd, bo eer: deer, peer b: ear, weary, idea, tear, beard eir: weird
rse ier: fierce, pierce ere: here, mere ia: media(l), labia(l), genial eu: museum iu: delirium eo: theory, theology e: hero, serious, serial
The diphthongs to /w/: /ew/, /aw/, /]w/
/aw/ initial, medial and final: isle, bite, cry a falling, wide, closing diphthong
i: ice, dime, loci y: dyke, fly ie: die, lie, pie ye: dye, fye ei: height, either, neither uy: in buy, guy Note also the pronunciation of ay(e) /aı/, eye /aı/ and aisle /aıl/.
/]w/
a falling, wide, closing diphthong initial, medial and final: ointment, boil, toy oi: oil, toil oy: oyster, Boyle, coy
/ew/ a falling, narrow, closing diphthong initial, medial and final: eight, plate, play
a: ace, lace ai: aid, maid ay: aye, clay ei: eight, reign ey: they, grey, ea: break, steak et or é: ballet, bouquet, chalet, café, fiancé, attaché, resumé Exceptionally, there are spellings like gaol, bass, gauge, halfpenny .
The diphthongs to //: /∂(cid:157) /, /a(cid:157) /
/∂(cid:157)/ initial, medial and final: old, gold, flow a falling, narrow, closing diphthong
/a/
initial, medial and final: ouch, loud, bough a falling, wide, closing diphthong o: old, sold, no oa: oak, roast oe: toe ow: own, known, row ou: poultry, dough eau: beau, bureau au: gauche oo: brooch ew: sew oh: oh ou: oust, doubt, plough ow: owl, howl, how eo: MacLeod
LESSON 5:
PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Glossary:
Phone/Phoneme/Allophone A great deal of evidence indicates that humans perceive speech sounds in a way that is vastly simplified from how they actually sound. Specifically, an unbroken stream of phonetic speech is perceived as a sequence of abstract psychological units called phonemes. The science of phonology, or the study of how speech sounds are perceived by and organized in the brain, usually assumes that phonemes exist. Some sounds that are phonetically different nevertheless sound the same to English speakers, e.g. [t] and [th], [l] and [|], [p] and [ph]. Similar groups of sounds can be found for any human language. Such a group of phones that sound alike to a speaker of a language represent a phoneme: a purely psychological entity that a speaker considers to be a single sound, even though it may have various phonetic shapes, or allophones. Definitions a. phone: a physical language sound, measurable by acoustic instruments. b. phoneme: a language sound as it is perceived by a speaker. c. allophone: a phone in complementary distribution with other allophones that are related to the same phoneme. Allophones have three important characteristics: (i) they are perceived as the same sound, (ii) they are in complementary distribution, and (iii) they are usually phonetically similar. We distinguish phones from phonemes in our notation by writing them in square brackets and slash brackets, respectively: e.g. [t] and [th] are allophones of the English phoneme /t/, [l] and [|] are allophones of English /l/, and [p] and [ph] are allophones of English /p/. We must therefore distinguish at least two ways of transcribing speech. A phonemic (or broad) transcription shows the sequence of phonemes that a native speaker perceives in the speech stream, while a phonetic (or narrow) transcription shows (in greater or lesser detail) the actual phones that occur in the speech stream.
Phonemic and phonetic transcriptions of some /t/ words
Phonemic Phonetic
/tewbl/ [thewb|]
/bæt∂/ [bæ(cid:144) ∂]
/st]p/ [st]p] a. table b. batter c. stop
Phoneme vs. Phones vs. Allophones
Phonemes Phones Allophones
o Concrete phonetic segments o Actual realization of the phonemes o Infinite number of phones o Hard to organize o Noncontrastive o You never hear same phone twice. o Designated in brackets [ ] o The different phones that are the realizations of one phoneme o Predictable o Phonetic variants of a phoneme o Rulegoverned o No difference in meaning, no minimal pairs o Designated in brackets [ ] o Abstract sounds stored in our memory o Mental representation of the sounds o Finite number of phonemes o Organizable (labial, interdental, alveolar.. etc.) o Contrastive phonological segments, distinctive sounds o The substitution of one for the other makes a different word. o Phonemes vary from language to language. o Designated in slashes / /
Distribution
Complementary distribution
Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p]
and [ph] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [ph] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the wordspin).
Complementary distribution is an indication that the sounds in question areallophones of the same phoneme.
There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [[ŋ] (engma, written as "ng" in English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common they are still considered separate phonemes.
Contrastive distribution
Contrastive distribution means that the sounds are distributed in the data in a way that distinguishes one word from another. For example the sounds /p/ and /k/ are in contrastive distribution in English in such words as skill and spill.
Contrastive distribution is an indication that the two sounds in question are different phonemes.
Free Variation
The substitutability of one sound for another in a given environment, with no change in the word’s meaning. For example, the word economics may be pronounced with /w/ or /e/ in the first syllable; tomato is pronounced differently in British and American English; or either has two pronunciations which are fairly randomly distributed.
Minimal pair
In establishing the set of phonemes of a language, it is usual to demonstrate the independent, contrastive nature of a phoneme by citing pairs of words which differ in one sound only and have different meanings. Thus in English 'fairy' /'fε∂(cid:139) w/ and 'fairly' /f ∂ε lw/ make a minimal pair and prove that /‹/ and /l/ are separate, contrasting phonemes.
Sometimes an exact minimal pair contrasting two phonemes does not exist in a language. Linguists then look for near minimal pairs.
In a near minimal pair only the sounds surrounding the phonemes are identical. Could you come up ,∫ ¥/? A near minimal pair for these phonemes is mission, with a minimal pair for / vision: /'mw ∂∫ n/ /'vi¥∂n'/
Distinctive Features
In any language it seems that the sounds used will only differ from each other in a small number of ways. If for example a language had 40 phonemes, then in theory each of those 40 could be utterly different from the other 39. However, in practice there will usually be just a small set of important differences: some of the sounds will be vowels and some consonants; some of the consonants will be plosives and affricates, and the rest will be continuants; some of the continuants will be nasal and some not, and so on. These differences are identified by phonologists, and are known as distinctive features. There is disagreement about how to define the features (e.g. whether they should be labelled according to articulatory characteristics or acoustic ones), and about how many features are needed in order to be able to classify the sounds of all the languages in the world.
Major class features
These features represent the classes: consonant, obstruent, nasal, liquid, glide, and vowel.
[± consonantal]
Sounds which are [+ consonantal] are those which have some kind of constriction along the center of the vocal tract. This constriction must be at least as narrow as that required for a fricative. Examples: [p] [b] [s] [z] [t∫] [¥]
[± sonorant]
Sounds which are [+sonorant] are those which are produced with a constriction in the vocal tract that allows the air pressure both behind and in front of the constriction to be relatively equal. This feature generally divides the sound system into sonorants ([+sonorant] sounds), which are nasals, approximants, glides, and vowels, and obstruents ([sonorant] sounds), which are oral stops, fricatives, and affricates.
[± vocalic]
Vowels and syllabic liquids. Use of major class features
Obstruents + p b z θ Vowels + + i æ Glides + j w Liquids + + l r Nasals + + m n [consonantal] [vocalic] [sonorant] Examples
Laryngeal features
These features represent laryngeal states.
[± voice]
Sounds which are [+voice] are those which are produced with vibration of the vocal folds.
[± spread glottis]
Sounds which are [+spread glottis] are those produced with a glottal configuration that produces audible glottal friction. For example, the aspirated stops in English are [+spread glottis]
[± constricted glottis]
Sounds which are [+constricted glottis] are those which are produced with the vocal folds drawn together and tense.
Place features
These features represent place of articulation.
[± labial]
Any sound articulated with one or both lips is [+ labial. Examples [p] [b] [f] [v] [w].
[± round]
Sounds that are [+ round] are made by protruding the lips. Examples [w]
[± coronal]
Any sound articulated with the tongue tip or blade raised is [+ coronal]. Examples [t] [d] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [t∫] [d¥] [∫] [¥] [n] [l] [(cid:139) ]
[± anterior]
Any sound articulated in front of the alveopalatal region is considered to be [+ anterior].Examples [p] [b] [t] [d] [s] [z] [θ] [ð]
[± strident]
The 'noisy' fricatives and affricates only. Examples [s] [z] [∫] [¥] [t∫] [d¥]
Dorsal features
These features represent the placement of the body of the tongue.
[± high]
Sounds produced with the tongue body raised are considered [+ high] (both vowels and consonants). Examples: [i:] [u:] [k] [g]
[± low]
Vowels made with the tongue body distinctly lowered from a central position in the oral cavity are [+ low]. Examples: [æ] [Y:]
[± back]
Any sound articulated behind the palatal region in the oral cavity. Examples: [u:] []:] [k] [g]
[± tense]
Expresses the tense lax distinctions among vowels.
[± reduced]
Only the schwa ([∂]) is [+ reduced]
Manner features
These features represent manner of articulation.
[±continuant]
Sounds which are [+ continuant] are those which are produced without a central blockage in the vocal tract. For example, fricatives have a central constriction, but there is no complete blockage of the air, and they are therefore, [+ continuant].
[±nasal]
Sounds which are [+nasal] are produced with nasal airflow.
[±lateral]
Sounds which are [+lateral] are produced with airflow passing through one or both sides of the tongue, which is in contact with the central part of the oral cavity.
LESSON 6:
SYLLABLE STRUCTURE
Syllables and their parts
A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and the consonants that cluster around this central peak. Words can be cut up into units called syllables. Humans seem to need syllables as a way of segmenting the stream of speech and giving it a rhythm of strong and weak beats, as we hear in music. Syllables don't serve any meaningsignalling function in language; they exist only to make speech easier for the brain to process. A word contains at least one syllable.
Most speakers of English have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. Sometimes how a particular word is divided might vary from one individual to another, but a division is always easy and always possible. Here are some words divided into their component syllables (a period is used to mark the end of a syllable):
tomato = to.ma.to window = win.dow supercalifragilisticexpialidocious =su.per.ca.li.fra.gi.lis.ti.cex.pi.a.li.do.cious (some people might put some of the periods in different places in this word).
Syllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. The parts are onset andrhyme; within the rhyme we find the nucleus and coda. Not all syllables have all parts; the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus only. A syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda.
Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ], [ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable. In the following words, the onset is in bold; the rest underlined.
read flop strap
If a word contains more than one syllable, each syllable will have the usual syllable parts:
win.dow to.ma.to pre.pos.te.rous fun.da.men.tal
Rhyme (or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up:
Rhyme = nucleus + coda
The nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to be present. Syllable nuclei are most often highly 'sonorant' or resonant sounds, that can be relatively loud and carry a clear pitch level. In English and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. In English, in certain cases, the liquids [ l r ] and nasals [ m n ] and the velar nasal usually spelled 'ng' can also be syllable nuclei.
Description
Parts Onset Rhyme – Nucleus – Coda Initial segment of a syllable Core of a syllable, consisting of a nucleus and coda (see below) Central segment of a syllable Closing segment of a syllable Optionality Optional Obligatory Obligatory Optional
The syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop', 'strap' and 'window' are as follows (IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable):
read = one syllable
Onset = [ r ]
Rhyme = [ id ] (within the rhyme:)
Nucleus = [ i ] Coda = [ d ]
flop = one syllable
Onset = [ f l ]
Rhyme = [ a p ]
Nucleus = [ a ] Coda = [ p ]
window = 2 syllables
First syllable: [wIn]
Onset = [ w ]
Rhyme = [ I n ]
Nucleus = [ I ] Coda = [ n ]
Second syllable: [ d o ]
Onset = [ d ]
Rhyme = [ o ]
Nucleus = [ o ] (This syllable has no coda)
Linguists often use tree diagrams to illustrate syllable structure.
' = σ
'Flop', for example, would look like this (the word appears in IPA symbols, not English spelling). ' 'syllable'; 'O' = 'onset'; 'R' = 'rhyme'; 'N' = 'nucleus'; 'C' = 'coda'. The syllable node at the top of the tree branches into Onset and Rhyme; the Onset node branches because it contains two consonants, [ f ]
and [ l ]. The Rhyme node branches because this syllable has both a nucleus and a coda.
Liquids and nasals as syllable nuclei
The English liquids [ ‹ l ] and the nasals [ m n ] can be the nuclei of syllables under certain conditions. [ l ] can be a nucleus as easily as a vowel. For example, the words 'table', 'little', both have [ l ] as the nucleus; in other words, there is no vowel in the pronunciation of these syllables.
When one of these sounds is a syllable nucleus, this is shown in transcription by putting a very short vertical line under the IPA symbol: [ r l m n ] ' ' ' ' In terms of consonants and vowels, the following words represent the following structures:
VC up an in VCC old and ink CVC bed set cap CCCVC strut squat sprain CV my hoe so VCCC Olds ants amps CCVC bred dread stone CCCVCC struts squats sprained CCV pry grow free CVCCC test tenths lunged CVCC bald sand hunt CCVCCC slurps prints flirts CCCV screw spray stray CVCCCC thirsts texts worlds CCVCC brand trains swings CCCVCCC scrimps sprints squelched
Phonotactic constraints
All languages except sign languages use sequences of phones to make words. No languages allow sounds to combine freely. That is, there are always constraints on what phones any particular phone can precede and follow. These constraints are calledphonotactic constraints. The sum total of all the phonotactic constraints of a language is called its phonotactics.
o In any syllableinternal sequence of a nasal and a stop, the nasal and the stop must have the same place of articulation:
Actual hand taunt punk Impossible *hamd *taumt *pumk Possible hant taund pung
o In any 2consonant onset, the second consonant must be a sonorant.
Actual Impossible
please proud pure twin trust queen clean cream *ptease *psoud *pshure *tdin *tpust *ksean *cshean *cteam
o In any 3consonant cluster in an onset, the first consonant must be [s]: splash, strong, spew . o In any 3consonant cluster in an onset, the second consonant must be a voiceless stop [p,t,k]: splash, strong, spew , extreme.
Initial consonant clusters in English containing a voiceless stop
Labial + sonorant Coronal + sonorant Velar + sonorant
[pl] please [pr] proud [pw] ____ [pj] pure [spl] splat [spr] spring [spw] ____ [spj] spew [tl] ____ [tr] trade [tw] twin [tj] tune [stl] ____ [str] strip [stw] ____ [stj] stew [kl] clean [kr] cream [kw] queen [kj] cute [skl] sclerosis [skr] scrap [skw] squeak [skj] skewer
Assignment 2: Click here to accomplish Assignment 2.
LESSON 6: SYLLABUS STRUCTURE Choose the best answer. Click the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen.
1. The following statement describes which aspect of vowel classification? "Vowels are classified in terms of how much space there is between the tongue and the roof of the mouth". A. tongue backness B. tongue height C. lip rounding D. vowel length 2. In making these vowels: /i/, /i:/, /u/, /u:/ space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth is....... A. relatively wide B. very wide C. relatively narrow D. very narrow 3. The sounds /i/ and /æ/ are examples of ... A. long vowels B. rounded vowels C. unrounded vowels D. back vowels 4. The sounds /i:/ and /u:/ are examples of ... . A. tense vowels B. lax vowels C. back vowels D. short vowels 5. Which of the following pairs of words have the same diphthong? A. mayor taylor B. pure future C. bourse mature D. height take 6. Which of the following pairs of words have different diphthongs? A. aisle dyke B. ace gaol
C. dough plough D. mare prayer 7. Which of the following word lists has the same vowel? A. could, routine, source, journal B. should, through, rule, route C. many, fat, act, sad D. quay, each, people, key 8. Which of the following word lists has different vowels? A. sought, tough, cough, could B. push, wolf, should, pull C. suit, shoe, rule, route D. carpet, bath, hearth, aunt 9. In the following words which underlined letter is pronounced /i:/? A. machine B. minute C. tick D. win 10. Which of the following is the description of the sound /o/? A. A central, mid, long, tense central vowel B. A long, tense, rounded vowel C. A front, short, lax, unrounded vowel D. A short, lax, open and slightly rounded 11. Which of the following is the description of the sound /i:/? A. A front, close (high), long, tense, unrounded vowel B. A more retracted front, short, lax, unrounded vowel C. A front, short, lax, unrounded vowel D. A lowest, front, short, lax, unrounded vowel 12. A physical language sound, measurable by acoustic instruments is called ... A. a phoneme B. a phone C. an allophone D. a minimal pair 13. Allophones are ... A. language sounds as they are perceived by a speaker B. physical language sounds C. in complementary distribution D. similar to phonemes 14. A phoneme is put between .... A. square brackets B. slash brackets C. square boxes D. round boxes 15. A phonetic transcription is also called a.... A. broad transcription B. narrow transcription C. phonemic transcription D. detail transcription 16. Which of the following statements is NOT correct? A. Phonemes are abstract sounds stored in our memory. B. Phonemes vary from language to language. C. You never hear same phone twice. D. Allophones are unpredictable. 17. Phonemes are ... A. organizable B. predictable C. noncontrastive D. concrete phonetic segments 18. Complementary distribution is an indication that the sounds in question are ...
A. phonemes B. allophones of the same phoneme C. phones D. minimal pairs 19. Contrastive distribution is an indication that the two sounds in question are ... A. different phonemes B. allophones of the same phoneme C. different phones D. similar phonemes 20. The substitutability of one sound for another in a given environment, with no change in the word’s meaning is called ... A. free variation B. a minimal pair C. distribution D. a near minimal pair 21. Pairs of words which differ in one sound only and have different meanings are called ... A. near minimal pairs B. minimal pairs C. different pairs D. close pairs 22. Which of the following is NOT a minimal pair? A. cat sat B. sad sat C. rat sad D. rat mat 23. ........... represent the placement of the body of the tongue. A. Place features B. Manner features C. Laryngeal features D. Dorsal features 24. Which of the following are described as [+ vocalic]? A. Obstruents B. Vowels C. Glides D. Liquids 25. Which of the following statements is NOT correct? A. Syllables don't serve any meaningsignalling function in language. B. Syllables exist only to make speech easier for the brain to process. C. Most speakers of English have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. D. A word contains at least two syllables. 26. The word 'tomato' consists of ...... A. one syllable B. two syllables C. three syllables D. four syllables 27. The beginning sounds of the syllable are called the ............. A. onset B. rhyme C. nucleus D. coda 28. The core or essential part of a syllable is called the .............. A. onset B. rhyme C. nucleus D. coda 29. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. In English and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. B. Most speakers of English find it difficult to divide a word up into its component syllables. C. A syllable is a unit of sound composed of only a central peak of sonority.
D. The smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus and a coda. 30. The syllable structure of the word "strength" is .......... A. CCCVC B. CCCVCC C. CCVCC D. CVCC 31. Which of the following consonant clusters is impossible in English? A. [spw] B. [spl] C. [skw] D. [skj] 32. Which of the following consonant clusters is is example of "Coronal + sonorant"? A. [str] B. [spl] C. [skl] D. [spw] 33. Which of the following words is English or possible in English? A. pimb B. pimk C. pimt D. pimd 34. Which of the following statements is NOT correct? A. The rhyme never precedes the onset. B. The rhyme may consist of only the nucleus. C. The rhyme may consist of a nucleus and a coda. D. The rhyme may consist of an onset and a nucleus. 35. The most important feature of a diphthong is that it ... A. is a combination of more than two vowels. B. contains a glide from one vowel quality to another one. C. ends in /i/ and /u/. D. begins with /e/, /a/ or /o/.
LESSON 7:
ADJUSTMENTS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
Glossary:
The main function of most of the adjustments is to promote the regularity of English rhythm that is, to squeeze syllables between stressed elements and facilitate their articulation so that regular timing can be maintained. In the section that follows, we discuss the processes of linking, assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, and epenthesis as they occur in connected speech.
Linking
You may have noticed that English speakers don't separate all their words like in some languages, but instead they connect them together. This is called linking, or liaison, and it is important for listening comprehension. It is especially crucial when pronouncing the final sounds on words, for example making the plural or the past tense ed. Following are the common cases of linking in English.
Linking consonant to vowel
Rule 1
When a word ends in two consonants and the next begins with a vowel, the final consonant sounds like the initial consonant of the following word:
Send it sounds like send.it Camp out sounds like camp.out
Rule 2
When a word ends in a single consonant and the next begins with a vowel, the consonant straddles the two syllables:
Push up Come in
Stop it Take off
Linking vowel to vowel
Rule 1
When a word ending in /w/, /ew/, /]w/, or /Yw/ is followed by another word beginning with a vowel, the two words are connected by a /j/ glide:
Be a sport.
Play a game.
Tie it up.
Employ a professional
Rule 2
When a word ending in /(cid:157) / , /a(cid:157) /, or /ә(cid:157) / is followed by another word beginning with a vowel, the two words are connected by a /w/ glide:
through it all
slow and steady
How are you?
Linking consonant to consonant
Rule 1
When a stop is followed by another stop or affricate, the first stop is not released or aspirated .
Stop + stop Hot dog Back door
Stop + affricate Bad judgment Sick child
Rule 2
If the consonants (whether or stop or not) are identical, the consonant is somewhat lengthened, the two consonants are not articulated separately:
less serious common names
Identical consonants Keep practicing! hot tea
Assimilation
Assimilation is a regular and frequent sound change process by which a phoneme changes to match an adjacent phoneme in a word. A common example of assimilation is vowels being 'nasalized' before nasal consonants as it is difficult to change the shape of the mouth sufficiently quickly.
There are three types of assimilation in English: (1) progressive, (2) regressive (or anticipatory), and (3) coalescent.
Progressive assimilation
In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. Examples of progressive assimilation in English are the regular plural /s/ vs. /z/ alternation, in which the final sound of the stem conditions the voiced or voiceless form of the suffix. This type of assimilation also occurs in the regular past tense /t/ vs. /d/ alternation:
Assimilated sound
/bæg /bæk
z/→ s/→
Conditioning sound s ending bags backs d ending moved fished
/mu:v /fw∫
d/→ t/→
For the plusal s ending, the voiced /g/ of bags conditions the voiced from of the s ending, causing it to be pronounced /z/, whereas the voiceless /k/ of backs conditions the /s/ pronunciation of the ending. Notice the same type of conditioning occurs in the d endings. Progressive assimilation also occurs in some contractions (e.g., it + is → it’s / it + iz → its). Most of the progressive assimilation in English occurs at the intersection of phonology and morphology.
Regressive assimilation
In English, regressive assimilation is more pervasive as a purely phonological process than is progressive assimilation. In regressive assimilation, the assimilated sound precedes and is affected by the conditioning sound. Examples of this type of phenomenon are the words grandpa (the /p/ causes the /nd/ to be articulated as /m/: /græmpa/) andpancake (the /k/ causes the /n/ to become /ŋ/: / pæŋkewk/).
Regressive assimilation occurs commonly in the periphrastic modals has/have to (when expressing obligation) and used to (when expressing former habitual action):
have /hæv/ has /hæz/ used /ju:zd/
+ to + /tu:/ + to + /tu:/ + to + /tu:/
→ “hafta” → /hæft / → “hasta” → /hæst/ → “usta” → /ju:st/
In these examples, the voiceless /t/ of to is the conditioning sound that causes the voiced /v/, /z/, and /d/ preceding it to assimilate and become voiceless /f/, /s/, and /t/ :
Assimilated sound hæf hæs ju:s
← Conditioning sound ← t ← t ← t
Another clear example of regressive assimilation is reflected in the English spelling system namely, in the four allomorphic variants of the negative prefix. Note that the unmarked allomorph in occurs in all cases except when the subsequent sound is a bilabial or a liquid: indecent, inept, invalid. In the case of im, the initial bilabial sound of the root words causes the organs of speech to approach a position closer to that of the conditioning sound, as in impossible or immobile. Similarly, with the liquids /l/ and /r/, the negative prefix is conditioned or changed to il and ir respectively, as in illogical and irrational:
ir irreplaceable irresponsible irrelevant irrational irregular
in inoperative inflexible indifferent inexcusable intangible
im impossible imbalanced immeasurable immobile impartial
il illogical illegal illegitimate illegible illiberal
As exemplified by the negative allomorphs il and ir, assimilated sounds often become identical to the conditioning sound.
Coalescent assimilation
The third type of assimilation, coalescent assimilation, is a type of reciprocal assimilation: The first sound and second sound in a sequence come together and mutually condition the creation a third sound with features from both original sounds.
This process occurs most frequently in English when final alveolar consonants such as /s, z/ and /t, d/ or final alveolar consonant sequences such as /ts, dz/ are followed by initial palatal /j/. They then become palatalized fricatives and affricates, respectively:
Within words, the /j/ sound (which is generally in an unstressed syllable) may be the initial sound of a suffix or the subsequent bound part of the word (e.g., ure, ion, ious); across words, the /j/ sound comes from a second word beginning in /j/, typically you or your. This type of assimilation is often referred to as palatalization.
As with linking, the amount of assimilation that occurs in native speaker speech will depend on a number of variables, such as the formality of the situation, the rate of speech, and the style of the speaker.
Flapping
Flapping is a type of assimilatory process in which an alveolar stop is pronounced as a voiced flap between vowels, the first of which is generally stressed. This process is characteristic of American English in words such as butter, writer, fatter, udder, wader, waiter, and even phrases such as (I) caught her. The sound heard intervocally in these forms is the voiced flap [] and not the voiced stop [d]. Flapping is considered a type of assimilation since it results in voicing and sonority being maintained throughout a sequence of segments.
Dissimilation
θ
The process of dissimilation occurs when adjacent sounds become more different from each other (rather than more similar, as is the case with assimilation). It is rare in English and not an active process. Some texts cite the pronunciation of the final cluster offifths as [fts] as an example of dissimilation (i.e., of [f s] to [fts]), which reflects a tendency in some English dialects to break up a sequence of three fricatives by replacing the second with a stop. In English, the process of dissimilation can be ignored for pedagogical purposes.
Deletion
An even more radical form of adjustment in connected speech is deletion (also known as elision, ellipsis, or omission): the process whereby sounds disappear or are not clearly articulated in certain contexts. In some cases, the spelling system of English is sensitive to this phenomenon, representing deletion in the contracted form of auxiliary verbs plus not (e.g. isn’t). In other cases, however, deletion occurs without any acknowledgment in the
spelling system. Even many native speakers may be unaware of where deletion occurs. The process is pervasive.
The following are some of the most typical environments for deletion:
Loss of /t/ when /nt/ is between two vowels or before a syllabic [l]: Loss of /t/ or /d/ when they occur second in a sequence or cluster of three consonants:
Deletion of word final /t/ or /d/ in clusters of two at a word boundary when the following word begins with a consonant: 1
However, when the following word begins with a vowel, there is no deletion. Instead, resyllabification occurs.
Resyllabification
Eas/t end Blin/d eye Wil/d ass
Loss of an unstressed medial vowel (also referred to as syncope), where the unstressed vowel /ә/ or /i/ optionally drops out in some multisyllabic words following the strongly stressed syllable: 2
In rapid or informal native speaker speech, deletion occasionally occurs in twosyllable words such as the following, which are reduced tone syllable:
correct, parade, police, suppose, garage
Related to this type of deletion is loss of an unstressed initial vowel or syllable in highly informal speech, a process known as aphesis:
‘cause, ‘bout, ‘round
Loss of the first noninitial /r/ in a word that has another /r/ in a following syllable :
February, governor, surprise, temperature
Loss of final /v/ in of (i.e., reduction to schwa) before words with initial consonants:
lost of money, waste of time, hearts of palm
Loss of initial /h/ and /ð/ in pronominal forms in connected speech:
ask her, help him, tell them
Epenthesis
Epenthesis is the insertion of a vowel or consonant segment within an existing string of segments. Although less frequent than deletion in English, epenthesis is by no means uncommon. The most important type of epenthesis in English occurs in certain morphophonological sequences such as the regular plural and past tense endings. Here an epenthetic schwa /ə/ is added to break up clusters of sibilants or alveolar stops. Progressive assimilation alone will not make the morphological endings sufficiently salient. Thus for the plural endings, for which we can posit an underlying {z} morpheme, we have :
Assimilation plate + {z}= /plewts/ bag + {z} = /bægz/
Epenthesis place + {z}= /pleis z/ə buzz + {z} = /b(cid:158)z
әz/
And for regular past tense, for which we can posit an underlying {d}morpheme, we have:
Assimilation look + {d}= /l(cid:157)kt/ grin +{d} = /grind/
Epenthesis plant + {d}= plænt də hand +{d}= hænd də
Finally, there are also cases of consonant epenthesis in English. Often words like princeand tense, which ending
[ns], are pronounced with an inserted [t] so that they sound just like prints and tents. In such cases, the insertion of the voiceless stop [t] makes it easier for speakers to produce the voiced nasal plus voiceless fricative sequence. We see the same process at work when some speakers add a [p] between the /m/ and /f/ in comfort.3 All five types of adjustment in connected speech that we have just discussed (i.e., linking, assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, and epenthesis) reflect English speakers' attempts to connect words and syllables smoothly in the normal stream of speech. Sometimes underlying sounds are lost or modified as in the cases of deletion and assimilation. Sometimes other sounds are added, as in epenthesis or some forms of linking. Typically, the motivations for all these modifications seem to be:
o ease of articulation for the speaker o preservation of the preferred English syllable structure o preservation of grammatical information
Metathesis
Metathesis is a process that reorders a sequence of segments. Metathesis often results in a sequence of phones that is easier to articulate. It is common to hear metathesis in the speech of children, who often cannot pronounce all the consonant sequences that adults can. For example, Englishspeaking children pronounce spaghetti as pesghetti. In this form, the initial sequence /spә/, which is often difficult for children to pronounce, is metathesized to /pәs/.
The pronunciations of prescribe and prescription as perscribe and perscription are oftencited examples of metathesis in adult speech. In these cases, metathesis may facilitate the pronunciation of the two consonantr sequences in each word.
___________________________________________________________
1. There are two exceptions to this rule. First, when the second word begins with /w, h, j, r/, no deletion occurs: East hill, blind youth, wild ride. Second, some consonant clusters with final /t/ or /d/ never simplify: /nt, lt, rt, rd/: plantfood, felt pen, shortstop, bird feeder. 2. If the last syllable is stressed, syncope does not occur. Compare the verb separate /sep 'reə wt/ with the adjective separate /'seprwt / 3. In some cases an epenthetic consonant is now represented in the spelling of a word or name. Examples are the p in empty or Thompson (a variant of Thomson)
LESSON 8:
WEAK FORMS
Glossary:
English is a stresstimed language, which means that stressed syllables are equal in timing. In order to fit our words into this pattern, we tend to compress other syllables or words occurring between stresses, in order to keep up with the more or less regular rhythm. Therefore, compressing or "weakening" some sounds is necessary to keep the rhythm of English.
A weak form is the pronunciation of a word or syllable in an unstressed manner. Of course, the difference between the strong form (stressed) and the weak form (unstressed) of a word is not apparent in writing, but in speech these two variations in pronunciation can be drastically different. If spoken in isolation, the weak form of a word would probably be unintelligible. The difference between the two forms can affect meaning. Here is an example to show how strong and weak forms of a single word (that) can change the entire meaning of a sentence:
o John thinks that man is evil. /ðәt/
This version of the sentence, with the weak (unstressed) form of that, means "John thinks all humans are evil."
o John thinks that man is evil. /ðæt/
This version of the sentence, with the strong (stressed) form of that, means "John thinks a specific (male) individual is evil."
As indicated by this example, if a speaker unknowingly uses the strong form instead of the weak form, misunderstandings can occur.
In the rest of this section, the most common weakform words will be introduced.
1 ‘THE’
Weak forms:
(before consonants) ‘Shut the door’ (before vowels) ‘Wait for the end’
2 ‘A’, ‘AN’
Weak forms:
(before consonants) ‘Read a book’ (before vowels) ‘Eat an apple’
3 ‘AND’
Weak form:
(sometimes after) ‘Come and see’ ‘Fish and chips’
4 ‘BUT’
Weak form: ‘It’s good but expensive’
5 ‘THAT’
(This word only has a weak form when used in a relative clause; when used with a demonstrative sense it is always pronounced in its strong form.)
Weak form: ‘The price is the thing that annoys me’
6 ‘THAN’
Weak form: ‘Better than ever’
7 ‘HIS’ (when it occurs before a noun)
Weak form: (at the beginning of a sentence) ‘Take his name’
(Another sense of ‘his’, as in ‘it was his’, or ‘his was late’, always has the strong form.)
8 ‘HER’
(When used with possessive sense, preceding a noun; as an object pronoun, this can also occur at the end of a sentence.)
Weak forms:
(before consonants) ‘Take her home’ (before vowels) Take her out’
9 ‘YOUR’
Weak forms:
(before consonants) ‘Take your time’ (before vowels) ‘On your own’
10 ‘SHE’, ‘HE’, ‘WE’, YOU’
This group of pronouns has weak forms pronounced with weaker vowels than the and of their strong forms. We will use the symbols and (in preference to and) to represent them. There is little difference in the pronunciation in different places in the sentence, except in the case of ‘he’.
Weak forms:
‘SHE’ ‘Why did she read it?’ ‘Who is she?’
‘HE’ (the weak form is usually pronounced without except at the beginning of a sentence) ‘Which did he choose?’ ‘He was late, wasn’t he?’
‘WE’ ‘How can we get there?’ ‘We need that, don’t we?’
‘YOU’ ‘What do you think?’ ‘You like it, do you?’
11 ‘HIM’
Weak form: ‘Leave him alone’ ‘I’ve seen him’
12 ‘HER’
Weak form:
(when sentenceinitial) ‘Ask her to come’ ‘I’ve met her’
13 ‘THEM’
Weak form: ‘Leave them here’ ‘Eat them’
14 ‘US’
‘Write us a letter’ ‘They invited all of us’ Weak form:
The next group of words (some prepositions and other grammatical words) occur in their strong forms when they are final in a sentence; examples of this are given. (19 is a partial exception.)
15 ‘AT’
Weak form: In final position: ‘I’ll see you at lunch’ ‘What’s he shooting at?’
16 ‘FOR’
Weak form:
In final position: (before consonants) ‘Tea for two’ (before vowels) ‘Thanks for asking’ ‘What’s that for?’
17 ‘FROM’
Weak form: In final position: ‘I’m home from work’ ‘Here’s where it came from’
18 ‘OF’
Weak form: In final position: ‘Most of all’ ‘Someone I’ve heard of’
19 ‘TO’
Weak forms:
(before consonants) ‘Try to stop’ (before vowels) ‘Time to eat’
In final position: tu: (It is not usual to use the strong form tu:, and the preconsonantal weak form /tә/ is never used.)
‘I don’t want to’
20 ‘AS’
Weak form: In final position: ‘As much as possible’ ‘That’s what it was sold as’
21 ‘SOME’
This word is used in two different ways. In one sense (typically, when it occurs before a countable noun, meaning “an unknown individual”) it has the strong form:
‘I think some animal broke it’
It is also used before uncountable nouns (meaning “an unspecified amount of”) and before other nouns in the plural (meaning “an unspecified number of”); in such uses it has the weak form
‘Have some more tea’
In final position:
‘I’ve got some’
22 ‘THERE’
When this word has demonstrative function, it always occurs in its strong form (before vowels), e.g.
‘There it is’ ‘Put it there’
Weak forms: (before consonants)
‘There should be a rule’
(before vowels)
‘There is’
In final position the pronunciation may be or
‘There isn’t any, is there?’
The remaining weakform words are all auxiliary verbs, which are always used in conjunction with (or at least implying) another (“full”) verb. It is important to remember that in their negative form (i.e. combined with ‘not’) they never have the weak pronunciation, and some (e.g. ‘don’t’, ‘can’t’) have different vowels from their nonnegative strong forms.
23 ‘CAN’, ‘COULD’
Weak forms:
‘They can wait’ ‘He could do it’
In final position:
‘I think we can’ ‘Most of them could’
24 ‘HAVE’, ‘HAS’, ‘HAD’
Weak forms: (with initial in initial position)
‘Which have you seen?’ ‘Which has been best?’ ‘Most had gone home’
In final position:
‘Yes, we have’ ‘I think she has’ ‘I thought we had’
25 ‘SHALL’, ‘SHOULD’
Weak forms:
‘We shall need to hurry’ ‘I should forget it’
In final position:
‘I think we shall’ ‘So you should’
26 ‘MUST’ This word is sometimes used with the sense of forming a conclusion or deduction, e.g. ‘she left at 8 o’clock, so she must have arrived by now’; when ‘must’ is used in this way, it is rather less likely to occur in its weak form than when it is being used in its more familiar sense of “obligation”.
Weak forms: (before consonants)
‘You must try harder’
(before vowels)
‘He must eat more’
In final position:
‘She certainly must’
27 ‘DO’, ‘DOES’
Weak forms:
‘DO’ (before consonants)
‘Why do they like it?’
(before vowels)
‘Why do all the cars stop?’
‘DOES’
‘When does it arrive?’
In final position:
‘We don’t smoke, but some people do’ ‘I think John does’
28 ‘AM, ‘ARE’, ‘WAS’, ‘WERE’
Weak forms:
(before vowels)
‘Why am I here?’ ‘The coats are in there’ ‘The questions were easy’
(before consonants)
‘Here are the plates’ ‘He was here a minute ago’ ‘The papers were late’
In final position:
‘She’s not as old as I am’ ‘I know the Smith are’ ‘The last record was’ ‘They weren’t as cold as we were’
LESSON 9: STRESS
Glossary:
Word stress
In every word in English, there is one main emphasized syllable. The vowel sound in this syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer, and louder, and this is called stress. This helps create the rhythm of the language, and knowing how to recognize the stressed syllable will help you with comprehension. Placing the stress where it should be when you're speaking helps native speakers understand you better as well.
Common English word stress patterns
English word stress is not always on the same syllable, like in some languages. Many times, though, it is one of the last three syllables in the word. Here are some examples of stress in different syllables of the word:
computer languages pronunciation
Could you hear a difference in tone, length, and loudness between the stressed and unstressed syllables?
Sometimes you can predict the stress placement because of the type of word or the ending you put on it. Here are some general rules:
Word type Where is the stress? Examples
Nouns on the first syllable
Two syllables
Verbs on the last syllable
on the first part Nouns (N + N) (Adj. + N)
Compound Adjectives (Adj. + P.P.) on the last part (the verb part)
Verbs (prep. + verb)
Phrasal Verbs on the particle
ic
the syllable before the ending
tion, cian, sion
Word with added ending
phy, gy, try, cy, fy, al
the third from the last syllable
meter center object flower release admit arrange desktop pencil case bookshelf greenhouse wellmeant hardheaded oldfashioned understand overlook outperform turn off buckle up hand out economic geometric electrical technician graduation cohesion photography biology geometry parameter thermometer barometer
Sentence stress (4)
Sentence stress is the music of spoken English. Like word stress, sentence stress can help us to understand spoken English, especially when spoken fast.
Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or "beat". We should remember that word stress is accent on one syllable within a word. Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.
Rules for Sentence Stress in English
In English sentences, not all words are given equal emphasis. Key words (usually the words that contain new or important information) are stressed and pronounced more slowly and clearly than other words. Take, for example, the question "Are you going to go to Boston?" If the focus of the question is on where the listener will go, the sentence will sound something like "Ya gonna go ta Boston"; the word "Boston" would be pronounced clearly and with more emphasis. If, in contrast, the emphasis is on who is going, the sentence would sound like "Are you gonna go ta Boston?" While students don't necessarily need to learn to reduce the unimportant words in sentence, they should learn to stress key ones. (Students should also be made aware of English word reductions for listening comprehension.)
The basic rules of sentence stress are:
o content words are stressed o structure words are unstressed o the time between stressed words is always the same
The following tables can help you decide which words are content words and which words are structure words:
Content words stressed
Words carrying the meaning main verbs nouns adjectives adverbs negative auxiliaries Example SELL, GIVE, EMPLOY CAR, MUSIC, MARY RED, BIG, INTERESTING QUICKLY, LOUDLY, NEVER DON'T, AREN'T, CAN'T
Structure words unstressed
Words for correct grammar pronouns prepositions articles conjunctions auxiliary verbs Example he, we, they on, at, into a, an, the and, but, because do, be, have, can, must
Exceptions
The above rules are for for what is called "neutral" or normal stress. But sometimes we can stress a word that would normally be only a structure word, for example to correct information. Look at the following dialogue:
"They've been to Mongolia, haven't they?" "No, THEY haven't, but WE have."
Note also that when "be" is used as a main verb, it is usually unstressed (even though in this case it is a content word).
4 Source: http://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/sentencestress.htm
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LESSON 10: INTONATION
Definition
In phonetics, intonation is the melodic pattern of an utterance. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch level of the voice, but in such languages as English, stress and rhythm are also involved. Intonation conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger, wariness)5.
1. Pitch
To understand intonation, it is first necessary to define pitch, the relative highness or lowness of the voice. It is important to note that the phonetic notion of pitch is relative, referring to the differentiated pitch levels of a given speaker not to the lower versus higher pitches of men’s and women’s voices or the differing pitch variations of different speakers.
In fact, pitch in its phonetic meaning corresponds quite closely to the definition of pitch in music. For example, ascending do, re, and mi represent progressively higher tones, or musical pitch. We distinguish four levels of phonetic pitch in English:
4 = extra high 3 = high 2 = middle 1 = low
Normal conversation moves between middle and high pitch, with low pitch typically signaling the end of an utterance. The extra high level is generally used to express a strong emotion such as surprise, great enthusiasm, or disbelief, and is the pitch level often used in contrastive or emphatic stress. English makes use of pitch variation over the length of an entire utterance rather than within one word.
If pitch represents the individual tones of speech, then intonation can be thought of as the entire melodic line. Intonation involves the rising and falling of the voice to various pitch levels during the articulation of an utterance. It performs several unique functions. First, intonation reflects the grammatical function of an utterance. For example:
If the utterance is pronounced with a rising falling intonation, then it signals speaker certainty, which often corresponds to a declarative statement. However, pronounced with rising intonation, the same sequence of phonemes signals uncertainty and corresponds to a special type of yes/no question with statement word order but rising intonation.
Intonation also performs the function of conveying an attitude or emotion. For example, the simple utterance “Great” can be used to express three different shades of meaning:
Clearly, the attitude of the speaker will vary in these three instances, with intonation conveying a great deal of the difference. Thus in statement 1, the overall effect of the slightly falling intonation is that the speaker's comment is
neutral or perfunctory, whereas in statement 2, the broader movement from high to low signifies that the speaker is genuinely enthusiastic. In contrast, the flatter intonation of the last statement signifies lack of enthusiasm or sarcasm on the part of the speaker.
The movement of pitch within an intonation unit is referred to as the intonation contourof that unit. Such contours span the range of extra high pitch to low pitch. These levels are highly dependent on discourse meaning and prominence, with rises in intonation cooccurring with the highlighted or more important words that receive prominence within the sentence. Thus pitch and prominence can be said to have a symbiotic relationship with each other in English, and the interrelationship of these phenomena determines the intonation contour of a given utterance. The next three sections summarize the most common intonation contours in English.
2. Most common intonation contours
2.1. Rising falling intonation
One of the most common patterns is the risingfalling contour. In this pattern, the intonation typically begins at a neutral middle level (2) and then rises to a high level (3) on the main stressed element of the utterance. The intonation then falls to either the low level (1) a terminal fall, signaling certainty and generally corresponding to the end of the utterance or to the middle level (2) a nonterminal fall, signaling a weaker degree of certainty and usually corresponding to an unfinished statement, an incomplete thought, or a mood of suspense. If the prominent syllable is the last syllable in the thought group, the fall is a glide:
(glide)
If, on the other hand, the stressed syllable is part of a multisyllabic word with other unstressed syllables after it, then the fall occurs on the unstressed element immediately following the main stressed syllable and is called a step:
Risingfalling intonation patterns of the 231 "certainly” type (i.e., the utterance begins at level 2, rises to level 3, and then falls to level 1) typically signal the following types of utterances: declarative statements, wh questions (questions with the interrogative pronouns where, when, what, who, why, how much), and commands or directives
Two further types of utterances can use risingfalling intonation contours. However, in these cases the pitch levels also vary from the 2 31 pattern. The first of these utterances uses a 2 3 2 nonterminal fall with a slight rise at the end, indicating that the utterance is an unfinished statement in which the speaker has left something unsaid it implied:
In some unfinished statements, the speaker uses the 2 3 2 pattern with a slight rise at the end to create suspense:
The other utterance using a risingfalling intonation occurs after a 231 contour and employs a 3 1 contour. This contour occurs in tag question eliciting agreement, in which the speaker is requesting confirmation from the interlocutor. Functioning almost kike a statement, the typically signal certainty:
2.2 Rising intonation
Another common intonation pattern in English is the rise. Rise in intonation usually begins at the syllable with
discourse prominence and continues slightly until the and of the phrase:
There are two different rise contours: one that moves from middle to high level (23 or 24), depending on the amount of emotion being expressed, and another that rises from low to midlevel (12). The middle to high rise (23 or 24) signals uncertainty. The following utterance types tend to follow this pattern: yes/no questions using question word order, open choice alternative questions, yes/no questions using statement word order, unfinished statements creating suspense, echo question, repetition questions, and tag questions signaling uncertainty.
In the first of these, yes/ no questions, the speaker asks a question, phrased in question word order, to which the expected answer is yes or no.
In the next pattern, openchoice alternative questions, the listener has a free choice of a alternatives being offered. It is unclear whether other options are available, but the listener is given the chance to reject all of the alternatives.
The next category involves utterances that look like statements in terms of their syntax but function as questions. Such statements are unlike normal yes/no questions in that speaker already has some evidence to confirm the statement. Both 23 and 24 rise patterns are possible the latter if surprise or disbelief is being expressed:
Occasionally, as a conversational strategy, a speaker will repeat a question before answering it. In these types of questions, commonly known as echo questions, there is a 23 rise pattern. For example, in answer to Speaker A question “What are you doing this weekend?” Speaker B might begin with the following echo question:
Repetition questions ask for repetition usually because the speaker could not hear what was said or the speakers could not believe what was said. These types of questions can follow statements, yes/no questions, or whquestions.
In the case of a 2 3 pitch contour, the question means "Could you repeat what you said? I didn’t hear you.” Suppose that Speaker A asks, “What are you doing this weekend?” to which Speaker B replies, "I'm going skiing” If Speaker A has not understood, a repetition question is asked:
With a more exaggerated pitch rise, on the other hand, the question means “I can’t believe what I just hear. Tell me a gain.” Assuming for example, that Speaker B’s answer to question “What are you doing this weekend?” is “I’m doing skydiving ,” Speaker A might signal disbelief through a rise to level 4:
Unlike the category of tag questions eliciting agreement, tag questions signaling uncertainty are more like true yes/no questions. The speaker may have some prior assumption but allows for the possibility of either a ”yes” or “no” response:
2.3 Other paterns
As noted previously, there are two basic options for sentence final intonation in English risingfalling and rising patterns. However, internal to a given sentence, there may also be a series of rises or falls that occur as a result of the syntax.
In the first combination, elements occur in a series, with each item in the series receiving rising intonation (usually 2 3) until the final item, which receives rising falling intonation (23 1).
The identical pattern is found in closedchoice alternative questions. Again, each alternative receives rising intonation until the final one signaling that no other options are available and the speaker is expected to select from the closed set of choices presented.
This pattern of closedchoice alternative questions contrasts both in intonation contour and meaning with the open choice alternative questions described earlier. Compare:
(Closed choice: Which credit card are you going to pay with: Master Card or Visa)
In appositive constructions, defined as a phrase or clause that follows and modifies a noun giving added information, the 1 2 1 contour signals that the clarifying appositive information is uttered as an aside.
A related construction is the parenthetical expression. Similar to appositives, these expressions are often uttered as asides, signaled through the intonation contour used by the speaker. Parentheticals include utterances such as direct address (John, Dr. Martin), polite expressions (please, thank you), adverbials (unfortunately, one in a while), expressions of opinion (I’m afraid, you know), and epithets or expletives (that jerk, damn). These parenthetical
elements, when they appear sentence initially, can be signaled either through a rising falling pattern:
A second pattern used with middlesentence and sentencefinal parenthetical moves from low to middle level (12), with the rise in intonation coinciding with the main stressed syllable of the parenthetical:
In compound or complex sentences, each clause has its own intonation pattern, which more or less corresponds to the rules given previously. In other words, each clause may terminate in rising intonation or risingfalling intonation, depending on its particular syntax. However, in the case of falling intonation patterns with nonfinal clauses, the fall usually terminates at level 2.
As we mentioned previously, certain basic principles governing English prominence exist: however, the speaker’s intentions may override typical patterns in order to assign special prominence to a different element in the utterance. This is also true for intonation. In fact, as we have seen, intonation contours are directly connected to the prominent syllable. Therefore it is logical that if the prominent element shifts according to discourse context, then the intonation
pattern will also change.
5 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article9042640/intonation
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Assignment 3: Click here to accomplish Assignment 3.
Assignment 3: Click here to accomplish Assignment 3.
LESSON 10: INTONATION
Choose the best answer. Click the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen.
1. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'mend it' in rapid speech?
A. mend it B. me ndit
C. men dit D. mendit
2. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'look out' in rapid speech? A. loo kout
B. lookout C. lookout
D. A and B are correct 3. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'my orange' in rapid speech?
A. my + j + orange B. my + w + orange
C. my orange D. none is correct
4. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'Employ a new team' in rapid speech? A. Employ a new team
B. Employja new team C. Employwa new team
D. Employra new team 5. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'A toy and a game' in rapid speech?
A. A toyanda game B. A toyjand a game
C. A toyjanda game D. A toy anda game
6. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'How interesting!' in rapid speech? A. Howjinteresting
B. How interesting C. Howuinteresting
D. Howwinteresting 7. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'A cow and a buffalo' in rapid speech?
A. A cowandbuffallo B. A cowwanda buffallo
C. A cowwand a buffallo D. A cow anda buffallo
8. When a stop is followed by another stop or affricate, the first stop is A. not released or aspirated
B. released C. aspirated
D. not release
9. If the consonants (whether stop or not) are identical, the consonant is somewhat__________, the two consonants are not articulated separately A. lengthened
B. shortened C. varied
D. deleted 10. In which of the following examples, the sound [t] at the end of the first word is NOT RELEASED or ASPIRATED?
A. Back yard
B. Back chair
C. Back door D. Both B and C are correct
11. The suffix 's' in the word 'dogs' is pronounced as [z] ([dogz]). This is an example of... A. progressive assimilation
B. regressive assimilation C. coalescent assimilation
D. deletion 12. Which of the following statement is CORRECT?
A. In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. B. In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound follows and affects the preceding sound.
C. In regressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. D. In coalescent assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound.
13. In rapid speech, the word “grandpa” is pronounced as .... A. [`grænpa]
B. [`grændpa] C. [`gramdpa]
D. [`græmpa] 14. Coalescent assimilation is also referred to as a type of ....
A. reciprocal assimilation B. supporting assimilation
C. contrasting assimilation
D. complementary assimilation
15. Which of the following statements is CORRECT? A. Metathesis is a process that reorders a sequence of segments.
B. Metathesis is a process that deletes a sequence of segments. C. Metathesis is a process that reverses a sequence of segments.
D. Metathesis is a process that redoes a sequence of segments. 16. In a stresstimed language, stressed syllables are .....................................
A. equal in timing B. varied in timing
C. sometimes more prominent than unstressed syllables D. sometimes less prominent than unstressed syllables
17. In order to keep the rhythm of English, some sounds in a sentence have to be ........... A. lengthened
B. compressed C. changed
D. replaced 18. A weak form is the pronunciation of a word or syllable in ...................
A. a stressed manner B. an unstressed manner
C. a distorted manner D. an open manner
19. In writing the difference between the strong form and the weak form of a word is ........... A. well defined
B. not unclear C. apparent
D. not apparent 20. In the question ‘What’s he looking at?’, the word 'at' has ...........................
A. the weak form B. the strong from
C. both strong and weak forms D. None is correct
21. In which of the following sentences does the word 'there' has the weak form? A. There it is.
B. Put it there. C. There should be a suggestion.
D. You shouldn't go there. 22. The word 'as' in the phrase ‘As much as possible’
A. has the weak form B. has the strong form
C. has both strong and weak forms D. None is correct.
23. In English, stress helps create ................ A. the speed of the language
B. the pronunciation of the language C. the pitch of the language
D. the rhythm of the language 24. Knowing how to recognize the stressed syllable ........................
A. will help you with reading B. will help you with comprehension
C. will make you better understood D. will improve your vocabulary
25. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT A. In every word in English, there is one main emphasized syllable.
B. The vowel sound in a syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer, and louder.
C. The vowel sound in a stressed syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer, and louder.
D. You can be better understood if you place the stress where it should be when you're speaking. 26. In the word 'pronunciation', the primary stress is on the ......................
A. first syllable B. second syllable
C. third syllable D. fourth syllable
27. Which of the following words has the second syllable stressed? A. technician
B. graduation C. geometric
D. understand 28. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT?
A. Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or "beat". B. Word stress is accent on one syllable within a word.
C. Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence. D. Like word stress, sentence stress can help us to understand written English.
29. Which of the following is not a rule of sentence stress? A. Content words are stressed.
B. The last word of a question is always stressed. C. Structure words are unstressed.
D. The time between stressed words is always the same. 30. Which of the following categories does not belong to content words?
A. Conjunctions B. Nouns
C. Adjectives D. Adverbs
31. Which of the following statements is not correct? A. Intonation is the melodic pattern of an utterance.
B. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch level of the voice. C. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch level of the sound.
D. Intonation conveys differences of expressive meaning. 32. The relative highness or lowness of the voice is known as ........
A. stress B. rhythm
C. melody D. pitch
33. Intonation involves ............... A. the rising and falling of the voice to various pitch levels during the articulation of an utterance.
B. the rising and falling of the melody to various pitch levels during the articulation of an utterance. C. the variation of stress and rhythm.
D. the variation of accent and pronunciation. 34. The movement of pitch within an intonation unit is referred to as ...............
A. the intonation contour of that sentence. B. the intonation contour of that unit.
C. the intonation of that sentence. D. the intonation of that unit.
35. If the intonation falls to the low level (1) [a terminal fall], it signals ............... A. uncertainty
B. certainty C. an incomplete thought
D. a question 36. If the intonation falls to the middle level (2) [a nonterminal fall], it signals ........
A. a weaker degree of certainty
B. certainty
C. a complete thought D. a finished statement
37. Risingfalling intonation patterns of the 231 "certainly” type do not signal which of the following? A. Declarative statements
B. Wh questions C. Commands or directives
D. Incomplete thoughts 38. The intonation contour: The middle to high rise (23 or 24) pattern signals ................
A. directives B. complete thoughts
C. certainty D. uncertainty
39. According to the following intonation pattern, what is an appropriate response to the question "We really ought to visit him, shouldn’t we?"
A. No, we shouldn't. B. Yes, we should.
C. I don't care. D. Yes, we ought.
40. Normally, the 24 rise intonation pattern is used to express............... A. surprise
B. disbelief C. sadness
D. A and B are correct.
LESSON 11121314 : MORPHOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
There are two basic types of words in human language simple and complex. Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units while complex words can be analyzed into constituent parts. The words houses, for example, is made up of the form house and the plural marker s, neither of which can be divided into smaller morphemes. While many English words consist of only one morpheme, others can contain two, three, or more (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Words consisting of one or more morphemes
One morpheme Two Three More than three
and boy hunt hospital gentle boys hunter hospitalize gentleman hunters hospitalizeation gentlemanly hospitalizeations gentlemanliness
Morphology deals with the internal structure of complex words. The words of any language can be divided into broad types of categories, closed and open, of which the latter are most relevant to morphology. The closed categories are the function words: pronouns like you, and she; conjunctions like and, if and because; determiners like a andthe; and a few others. Newly coined and borrowed words cannot be added to these categories of words that are open are the major lexical categories: noun (N), verb (B), adjective (A), and adverb (Adv). It is to these categories that new words may be added. Because the major problem of morphology is how people make up and understand words that they have never encountered before, morphology is concerned largely with major lexical categories.
Each word that is a member of a major lexical category is called a lexical item. A lexical item can best be thought of as an entry in a dictionary or lexicaon. The entry for each lexical item will include, in addition to its pronunciation (phonology); information about its meaning (sematics), to what lexical category it belongs, and in what syntactic environments it may occur (subcategorization).
II. IDENTIFYING MORPHEMES AND ALLOMORPHS
A major problem for morphological analysis is how to identify the morphemes that make up words. Given our definition of the morpheme as the animal meaningbearing unit of language, this will involve matching strings of sounds with cooccurring features of meaning. As an example of this procedure, consider the small set of data from Turkish in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Some Turkish plurals
Turkish /mumiar/ /toplar/ /adamiar/ /kitaplar/ English ‘candies’ ‘gun’ ‘men’ ‘books’
In Table 2.2, there is only one feature of meaning, plurality, that is present in all four cases. There is also one string of sounds, /lar/, that is found in all four words. This suggests that /lar/ is the morpheme marking plurality in Turkish while /mum/ means ‘candle’, /top/ means ‘gun’, and so on. We would therefore predict that a single candle would be designated by the morpheme /mum/, without /lar/. This is correct.
This is an unusually simple case, and many complications can arise. One such complication involves the fact that morphemes do not always have an invariant form. The morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English, for instance, has two forms a anfan.
an orange an accent a building a car
an eel a girl
The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant and the form an before words beginning with a vowel. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.
As another example of allomorphic variation, consider the manner in which you pronounce the plural morpheme s in the following words.
cats dogs judges
Whereas the plural is pronounced as [s] in the first case, it is realized as [z] in the second, and as /∂z/ in the third. Here again, selection of the proper allomorph is dependent on phonetic facts.
III. FREE & BOUND MORPHEMES
The analysis of morphological structure is based on a number of fundamental contrasts. The first involves the distinction betwee a free morpheme, which can constitute a word by itself, and a bound morpheme, which must be attached to another element. The morpheme house, for example, is free since it can be used as a word on its own; plural s on the other hand, is bound.
The morphemes that are free or bound in English do not necessarily have the same status in other languages. For example, in Hare (an Athapaskan language spoken in Canada’s Northwest Territories), words that indicate body parts are always bound to a morpheme designating a possessor. Table 3.1 shows the morpheme fi (“head”), be (“belly”), and dzé (“heart”), each of which must be attached to a morpyheme naming the possessor. (A high tone is marked by the diacritic).
Table 3.1 Some bound forms in Hare
Hare sefi nebé ???edzé ‘my head’ ‘your belly’ ‘his heart’ (never *fi) (never *be) (never * dzé)
Just as there are some free forms in English that are bound in other language, so there are some bound forms in English that are free in other languages. Past tense, for example, is expected by a bound morpheme (usually ed) in English, but by the free morpheme le in Mandarin. (To simplify, tone is not marked in these examples).
a) Ta chi le fan. He eat past meal. ‘He ate the meal.’
b) Ta chi fan le. He eat meal past. ‘He ate the meal.’
As you can see from these examples, le is apparently not attached to the verb since it is separated from it by the direct object in b).
IV. WORD STRUCTURE
Like sentences, complex words such as builder and gentlemanly have an internal structure. In this section, we will consider the categories and representation that are relevant to the analysis of word structure.
What sort of structure do complex words have? Let’s look in some detail at the worddenationalization. This word contains five morphemes: de na tion al ize ation. Nation is a free morpheme, since it can stand alone as a word, while the rest are bound morphemes. But simply listing the parts of the word and whether they are free or bound
does not tell us there is to know about the structure of this word. The parts have to be put together in a particular way, with a particular arrangement and order. For example, none of these possible orders of the same five morphemes constitutes an English word:
* ationizalnationde * alizdeationnation * nationdeizational
In fact, of the 120 possible arrangements of these five morphemes, only one,denationalization, could be an English word. The order is so strict because each of the bound morphemes is an affix, a morpheme which not only must be bound, but must be bound in a particular position. Furthermore, each affix attaches only to a particular lexical category (either N or V or A), called its base, and results in a word of another particular lexical category. The negative affix de, for example, attaches to verbs and forms other verbs:
ionize deionzie segregate desegregate
Similarly, the affix al forms adjectives from nouns, ize forms verbs from adjectives or noun, and ation forms nouns from verbs.
Given these restrictions, the structure of the word denationalization can best be seen as the result of beginning with the simple form nation, which we may call the root of the word, and adding affixes successively, one at a time, as follows:
nation national nationalize denationalize denationalization
The structure of the entire word may be represented by means of either a set of labeled brackets or a tree diagram. The two types of notation are for the most part interchangeable. Both are shown in Figure 4.1. the diagram reveals how the word begins at its root, which cannot be broken down any further by morphological analysis, and is built up one affix at a time. the abbreviation Af stands for affix.
Some other representations of structures of English words are given in Figure 4.2. such representations indicate the details of morphological structure. Where these details are irrelevant to the point being considered, it is traditional to
use a much simpler system of representation that indicates only the location of the morpheme boundaries: il legal,hospitalize, and so on.
Stems
A stem is the actual form to which an affix is added. In many cases, the stem will also be a root. In books, for example, the element to which the affix s is added in the root. In other cases, however, an affix can be added to a unit larger than a root. This happens in words such as hospitalized, in which the past tense affix ed is added to the stem hospitalize a unit consisting of the root morpheme hospital and the suffix ize (see Figure 4.3). In this case, hospital is not only the root for the entire word but also the stem for ize. The unit hospitalize, on the other hand, is simply the stem for ed.
Types of Affixes
It is possible to distinguish among several types of affixes in terms of their position relative to their stem. An affix that is attached to the front of its stem is called a prefix while an affix that is attached to the end of its stem is termed a suffix. Both types of affix occur in English, as Table 4.1 shows.
Table 4.1 Some English prefixes and suffixes
Prefixes disappear replay illegal inaccurate Suffixes vividly government hunter distribution
A far less common type of affix, known as an infix, occurs within another morpheme. The data in table 4.2, from the Philippine language Tag, contain two infixes, um and in. Often wordinternal vowel or consonant replacement is confused with infixing. A change such as the one found in English foot feet is not an example of infixing since there is no morpheme *ft. As you see in Table 4.2, the form to which the Tagalog infix is added actually exists as a separate morpheme.
Table 4.2 Some Tagalog infixes
Stem Infixed form
takbuh lakad pili? ‘run’ ‘walk’ ‘choose’ tumakbuh lumakad pinili? ‘ran’ ‘walked’ ‘chose’
In English, although infixing is not part of the normal morphological system, it does occur commonly with expletives, providing a kind of extra emphasis, as in the following examples:
guarandamntee absobloodylutely
Still another kind of affix varies according to the stem with which it occurs. It is called a reduplicative affix since its form duplicates all or part of the stem. Once again, Tagalog provides examples of this type of affixation (see Table 4.3). The reduplicative affix, here is a copy of the first consonantvowel sequence of the root.
Table 4.3 Some reduplicative affixes
Stem takbuh lakad pili? ‘run’ ‘walk’ ‘choose’ Reduplicated form tatakbuh lalakad pipili?in ‘will run’ ‘will walk’ ‘will choose’
This is an example of partial reduplication. Full reduplication is the reputation of the entire word, as in the date in Table 4.7, from Turkish and Indonesian, respectively.
Table 4.4 Some examples of full reduplication
Turkish
∫
‘quickly’ ‘slowly’ ‘well’ ‘beautifully’ ∫ ∫ t abuk t abuk ∫ java java iji iji gyz ∫ t abuk java∫ iji gyzel l gyzel ‘very quickly’ ‘very slowly’ ‘very well’ ‘very beautifully’
oraŋ oraŋ anak anak maŋga maŋga ‘all sorts of men’ ‘all sorts of children’ ‘all sorts of mangoes’ Indonesian oraŋ anak maŋga ‘man’ ‘child’ ‘mange’
Structure without Affixes
When one word is formed from another, the structural relation between the two words is usually marked by means of an affix, as we have seen, but it is possible for one word to be formed from another without any affix.
Conversion
Conversion, or zeroderivation, is probably the most frequent single method of forming words in English. It is especially common in the speech of children. Conversion creates a new word without the use of affixation by simply assigning an already existing word to a new syntactic category. In the case of the derived verbs in Table 4.5, there is no modification, whereas in the case of the derived nouns, there is a stress shift. Structurally, the derived forms remain simple in both instances even though they are new lexical items belonging to a syntactic category different from that of the source form. In the case of father and butter, for instance, the derived form is a verbs capable of taking the normal past tense ending.
Table 4.5 Some examples of conversion
Noun father butter ship nail Derived verb father butter ship nail Verb subjéct contést survéy permít Derived noun súbject cóntest súrvey pérmit
brush brush condúct cónduct
He fathered three children. He buttered the bread.
Conversion is usually restricted to unsuffixes words, although there are a few exceptions such as proposition (noun to verb), referee (noun to verb), and dirty (adjective to verb).
Another device is ablaut, the replacement of a vowel with a different vowel (see Table 4.6). Ablaut was frequent in early stages of English and in related ancient languages. Vestiges remain in Modern English. Though the process is no longer productive (used in forming new words).
Table 4.6 Some examples of ablaut
Verb stem sing abide shoot sell Ablaut noun song adobe shot sale
Stress shift is used in English to mark the difference between related nouns and verbs. We have already seen some examples of this in Table 4.5. Generally, the verbs have final stress, while the nouns have initial stress, as the further examples in Table 4.7 illustrate.
Table 4.7 Nouns and verbs that differ only in stress.
Noun cómbine tórment ímpiant rétest Verb combíne tormént impiánt retést
Nonaffixal morphology is common in other languages and may involve vocalic patterns or tone and other suprasegmental phonological features, sometimes in complex ways.
Wordbased Morphology in English, the stem of a new word is almost invariably existing word. For this reason, we say that English morphology is wordbased: words are built on words. As we saw in the case of the complex word denationalization. Each affix is added successively to an English word.
There are, however, many English words whose stems, when the outer affixes are removed, are not existing English words. Consider the words recalcitrant, horrible, anduncouth. These are all English words, but when the affixes re, ible, and un are removed, we are left with the stems *calcitrant, *horr and *couth, which are not English words. In all three cases, the reasons for the anomaly are historical. Recalcitrant and horrible were borrowed in their entirety from Latin and French. Because the affixes reand ible were also borrowed, these words appear to have been formed by means of English morphology, although they were not. English has many words like these two, borrowed from the Romance languages, from which many productive English affixes have also been borrowed. Many of them have nonword stems for the same reason. Uncouth is not borrowed, but was formed many centuries ago from the then existing word couth(historically related to can and know and still found in some British dialects). Some time after uncouth was formed, couth disappeared from most dialects, including the standard, leaving uncouth stranded without a stem. Grateful is another example of the same phenomenon. Words like grateful and horrible maybe described as having bound stems; in any case, they can be explained as cases of historical accident. When we understand how such exceptional words arose, it remains true that that all productive English word formation is wordbased. Whether all languages are like English in this respect is still an open question.
Some Problematic Cases:
It is not always easy to determine a word’s internal structure. In the case of words such as cranberry and huckleberry, it is tempting to assume that the root is berry, but this leaves us with the
morphemes cran and huckle. These elements are obviously not affixes like un or re since they occur with only one root. At the same time, however, neither cran nor huckle can be considered a free morpheme since neither ever stands alone as an independent word. The status of such morphemes continues to be problematic for linguists, who generally classify them as exceptional cases (or refer to them as cranberry morphemes).
A slightly different problem arises in the case of words such as receive, deceive, conceive, and perceive or permit, submit, and commit. The apparent affixes in these words do not express the same meaning as they do when they are attached to a free morpheme. Thus, the re of receive, for example, does not have the sense of ‘again’ that it does in redo (‘do again’). Nor does the de of deceive appear to express the meaning ‘reverse the process of’ associated with the affix in demystify or decertify. Moreover, the other portions of these words (ceive and mit) have no identifiable meaning either.
Because they have no meaning, ceive and mit are not morphemes of a normal sort. However, they have do have some interesting properties. For example, when certain suffixes are added to words ending in ceive, ceive quite regularly becomes cept (as in ‘receptive, deception’); similarly, mit becomes miss when the same suffixes are added (permissive, admission). These changes are not phonologically determined, since the ssdoes not occur before these suffixes in other words ending in t (prohibitive, edition). The changes must therefore be due to idiosyncratic properties of mit and ceive, similar to those of the morpheme man, whose plural is always men rather than the expected mans (postmen, brakemen, and so on). Mit and ceive are thus very similar to morphemes.
V. WORD FORMATION
A characteristic of all human languages is the potential to create new words. The categories of noun, verb, adjective, and adverb are open in the sense that new members are constantly being added. The two most common types of word formation arederivation and compounding, both of which create new words from already existing morphemes. Derivation is the process by which a new word is built from a base, usually through the addition of an affix. Compounding, on the other hands, is a process involving the combination of two words (with or without accompanying affixes) to yield a new word. The noun helper, for example, is related to the verb help via derivation, the compound word mailbox, in contrast, is created from the words mail and box.
1. Derivation
Derivation creates a new word by changing the category and/or the meaning of the base to which it applies. The derivation affix er, for instance, combines with a verb to create a noun with the meaning ‘one who does X’, as shown in Figure 5.1.
1.1. English Derivational
Affixes English makes very widespread use of derivation. Table 5.1 lists some examples of English derivational affixes, along with information about the type of base with which they combine and the type of category that results. The first entry states that the affix able applies to a verb base and converts it into an adjective with the meaning ‘able to be X’ed’. Thus if we add the affix able to the verb fix, we get an adjective with the meaning ‘able to be fixed’.
1.2. Derivational Rules
Each line in Table 5.1 can be thought of as a word formation rule that predicts how words may be formed in English. Thus, if there is a rule whereby the prefix un may be added to an adjective X, resulting in another adjective, unX, with the meaning ‘not X’, then we predict that an adjective like harmonious may be combines with this prefix to form the adjective unharmonious, which will mean ‘not harmonious’. The rule also provides a structure to the word, given in Figure 5.2.
These rules have another function: they may be used to analyze word, as well as to form them. Suppose, for example, that we come across the word unharmonious in a book on architecture. Even though we may never have
encountered this word before, we will probably not notice its novelty, but simply use our unconscious knowledge of English word formation to process its meaning, in fact, many of the words that we encounter in reading, especially in technical literature, are novel, but we seldom have to look them up, relying instead on our morphological competence.
Sometimes beginning students have trouble determining the category of the base to which an affix is added. In the case of worker, for instance, the base (work) is sometimes used as a verb (as in they work hard) and sometimes as a noun (as in the work is timeconsuming). This may then make it difficult to know which category occurs with the suffix er in the word worker. The solution to this problem is to consider the use of er (in the sense of ‘one who X’s’) with bases whose category can be unequivocally determined. In the words teacher and writer, for instance, we see this affix used with bases (teach and write) that are clearly verbs. Moreover, we know that er can combine with the verb sell (seller) but not the noun sale (*saler). These facts allow us to conclude that the base with which er combines in the word worker must be a verb rather than a noun.
1.3. Multiple Derivations
Derivation can create multiple levels of word structure, as shown in Figure 5.3. although complex ‘organizational’ has a structure consistent with the word formation rules given in Table 5.1. Starting with the outermost affix, we see that al forms adjectives from nouns,ation forms nouns from verbs, and ize forms verbs from nouns.
Table 5.2 Distribution of un
un + A unable unkind un + N *unknowledge *unintelligence
unhurt *uninjury
In some cases, the internal structure of a complex word is not obvious. The wordunhappiness, for instance, could apparently be analyzed in either of the ways indicated in Figure 5.4. by considering the properties of the affixes un and ness, however, it is possible to find an argument that favors Figure 5.4a over 5.4b. The key observation here is that the prefix un combines quite freely with adjectives, but not with nouns as shown in Table 5.2. (The advertiser’s uncola is an exception to this rule and therefore attracts the attention of the reader or listener). This suggests that un must combine with the adjective happy before it is converted into a noun by the suffix ness exactly what the structure in Figure 5.4a depicts. The derivation of this word therefore proceeds in two steps. First, the prefix un is attached to the adjective happy, resulting in another adjective (see Figure 5.5). The second step is to add the suffix ness to this adjective (see Figure 5.6). We see, then, that complex words have structures consisting of hierarchically organized constituents. The same is true of sentences, when we study further.
Table 5.3 Restrictions on the use of en
Acceptable whiten soften madden quicken liven Unacceptable *abstracten *bluen *angryen *slowen *greenen
1.4. A phonological constraint (advanced)
Derivation does not always apply freely to the members of a given category. Sometimes, for instance, a particular derivational affix is able to attach only to stems with particular phonological properties. A good example of this involves the English suffix en, which combines with adjectives to create verbs with a causative meaning (‘cause to become X’). as the following examples illustrate, however, there are many adjectives with whichen cannot combine.
The suffix en is subject to a phonological constraint. In particular, it can only combine with a monosyllabic stem that ends in an obstruent. Hence it can be added to white, which is both monosyllabic and ends in an obstruent, but not to abstract, which has two syllables, or to blue, which does not end in an obstruent.
2. Compounding
In derivational word formation, we take a single word and change it somehow, usually by adding an affix, to form a new word. The other way to form is by combining two already existing words in a compound. Blackbird, doghouse, seaworthy, and bluegreen are examples of compounds.
Compounding is highly productive in English and in related languages such as German. It is also widespread throughout the languages of the world. In English, compounds can be found in all the major lexical categories nouns
(doorstop), adjectives (winedark), and verbs (stagemanage) but nouns are by far the most common type of compounds. Verbs compounds are quite infrequent. Among noun compounds, most are of the form noun + noun (N N), but adjective + noun (A N) compounds are also found quite frequently; verb + noun (V N) compounds are rare. An example of each type is given in Figure 5.7. Compound adjectives are of the type adjective + adjective (A A) or noun + adjective (N A), as shown in Figure 5.8.
Although there are very few true compound verbs in English, this does not seem to be due to any general principles. In other languages, compound verbs are quite common.
Structurally, two features of compounds stand out. One is the fact that the constituent members of a compound are not equal. In all the examples given thus far, the lexical category of the last member of the compound is the same as that of the entire compound. Furthermore, the first member ia always a modifier of the second: steamboat is a type of boat; redhot is a degree of hotness. In other words, the second member acts as the head of the compound, from which most of the syntactic properties of the compound are derived, while the first member is its dependent. This is generally true in English and in many other languages, although there are also languages in which the first member of a compound is the head.
The second structural peculiarity of compounds, which is true of all languages of the world, is that a compound never has more than two constituents. This is not to say that a compound may never contain more than two words. Three word (dog food box), fourword (stone age cave dweller), and longer compounds (trade union delegate assembly leader) are easy to find. But in each case, the entire compound always consists of two components, each of which may itself be a compound, as shown in Figure 5.9. the basic compounding operation is therefore always binary, although repetition of the basic operation may result in more complex individual forms.
Compounding and derivation may also feed each other. The members of a compound are often themselves derivationally complex, and sometimes, though not often. A compound may serve as the base of a derivational affix. An example of each of these situations is given in Figure 5.10.
English orthography is not consistent in representing compounds since they are sometimes written as single words, sometimes with an intervening hyphen, and sometimes as separate words. However, it is usually possible to recognize noun compounds by their stress pattern since the first component is pronounced more prominently than the second. In noncompounds, conversely, the second element is stressed (see Table 5.4).
Although the exact types of compounds differ from language to language, the practice of combining two existing words to create a new word is very widespread.
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