Ebook Mental health and well being in animals (2/E): Part 1

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Part 1 book "Mental health and well being in animals" includes contents: Mental health in animals - a veterinary behaviorist’s view, the problems with well being terminology, the philosophical and biological evolution of feelings in well being, the relationship between mental and physical health, moving beyond a problem based focus on poor animal welfare toward creating opportunities to have positive welfare experiences, the mental health and well being benefits of personal control in animals,... and other contents.

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VetBooks.ir Mental Health and Well-being in Animals, 2nd Edition
VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir Mental Health and Well-being in Animals, 2nd Edition Franklin D. McMillan Best Friends Animal Society
VetBooks.ir CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI CABI Nosworthy Way 745 Atlantic Avenue Wallingford 8th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Boston, MA 02111 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 (617)682-9015 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 E-mail: cabi-nao@cabi.org E-mail: info@cabi.org Website: www.cabi.org © CAB International 2020. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: McMillan, Franklin D, editor. Title: Mental health and well-being in animals / edited by Franklin D. McMillan. Description: Second edition. | Boston : CABI 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “The second edition is fully revised, expanded, and comprehensively updated with the most current knowledge about the full array of mental health issues seen in animals. Written by key opinion leaders, internationally-recognized experts and specialists, it is comprehensive covering basic principles to mental wellness, emotional distress, suffering and mental illness, through to measurement and treatment. With even more practical information and clinical pearls, this book remains invaluable to veterinary professionals, animal welfare researchers and advocates, and other animal caregivers”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2019026055 | ISBN 9781786393401 (hardback) | ISBN 9781786393418 (epub) | ISBN 9781786393425 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Animals--Diseases. | Animal health. | Mental health. | Veterinary medicine. Classification: LCC SF745 .M46 2020 | DDC 636.089/6--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026055 ISBN-13: 9781786393401 (hardback) 9781786393425 (ePDF) 9781786393418 (ePub) Commissioning Editor: Caroline Makepeace Editorial Assistant: Lauren Davies Production Editor: Marta Patiño Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India Printed and bound in the UK by Severn, Gloucester
Contents VetBooks.ir Contributors Listvii Part 1 Foundational Issues of Animal Mental Health and Well-being 1 Mental Health in Animals: A Veterinary Behaviorist’s View1 Debra F. Horwitz 2 The Problems with Well-Being Terminology8 Franklin D. McMillan and James W. Yeates 3 The Philosophical and Biological Evolution of Feelings in Well-being21 Ian J.H. Duncan 4 The Relationship Between Mental and Physical Health33 Melissa Bain and C.A. Tony Buffington Part 2 The Pleasant Experiences: Mental Wellness 5 Moving Beyond a Problem-based Focus on Poor Animal Welfare Toward Creating Opportunities to Have Positive Welfare Experiences50 David J. Mellor and Ngaio J. Beausoleil 6 The Mental Health and Well-being Benefits of Personal Control in Animals67 Franklin D. McMillan 7 Quality of Life of Animals in Veterinary Medical Practice82 James W. Yeates 8 The Mental Health and Well-being Benefits of Social Contact and Social Support in Animals96 Franklin D. McMillan 9 Subjective Well-being, Happiness, and Personality in Animals111 Alexander Weiss and Lauren M. Robinson 10 Fostering Mental and Behavioral Wellness During Upbringing and Throughout Life123 Daniel Q. Estep and Suzanne Hetts Part 3 The Unpleasant Experiences: Distress, Suffering, and Mental Illness 11 What Is Distress? A Complex Answer to a Simple Question140 Franklin D. McMillan 12 Suffering, Agency, and the Bayesian Mind156 Daniel M. Weary 13 Mental Illness in Animals: Diagnostic Considerations Using Selected Mental Disorders167 Karen L. Overall v
14 Psychological Trauma and Posttraumatic Psychopathology in Animals182 Franklin D. McMillan VetBooks.ir Part 4 Mental Health Issues in Special Populations 15 Cognitive and Emotional Disorders in the Aging Pet212 Jacqueline Wilhelmy and Gary Landsberg 16 Mental Health Issues in Farm Animals: A Music Mixing Board Model of Behavioral Characteristics Using the Panksepp Emotional System231 Temple Grandin 17 Mental Health Issues in the Horse242 Daniel S. Mills, Claire Ricci-Bonot and Sophie S. Hall 18 Mental Health Issues in Shelter Animals257 Victoria Cussen and Pamela J. Reid 19 The Mental Health of Laboratory Animals277 Carine Elkhoraibi, Amy Robinson-Junker, Gina Alvino, and Larry Carbone 20 Mental Health Issues in Captive Birds291 Lynne M. Seibert 21 Psychological Well-being in Zoo Animals302 David Shepherdson and Kathy Carlstead 22 Mental Health Issues in Captive Cetaceans315 Lori Marino Part 5 Assessment and Management of Emotional Distress and Disorders 23 Assessing Affective States in Animals328 Michael Mendl and Elizabeth S. Paul 24 Treatment of Emotional Distress and Disorders – Nonpharmacologic Methods345 Pamela J. Reid 25 Treatment of Emotional Distress and Disorders – Pharmacologic Methods364 Sharon Crowell-Davis Index377 viContents
Contributors List VetBooks.ir Gina Alvino, PhD Institutional Animal Care and Use Program University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California, USA Melissa Bain, MS, DVM, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists, Diplomate American College of Animal Welfare Department of Medicine and Epidemiology UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine Davis, California, USA Ngaio J. Beausoleil, PhD Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre School of Veterinary Science Massey University Palmerston North New Zealand C. A. Tony Buffington, DVM, PhD, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Nutrition (Emeritus) Department of Medicine and Epidemiology UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine Davis, California, USA Larry Carbone, DVM, PhD, Diplomate American College of Animal Welfare, Diplomate American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine Institutional Animal Care and Use Program University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California, USA Kathy Carlstead, PhD Research Associate, Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Front Royal, Virginia, USA Sharon Crowell-Davis, DVM, PhD, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Diagnostic Imaging College of Veterinary Medicine University of Georgia Athens, Georgia, USA Victoria Cussen, PhD, CAAB Anti-Cruelty Behavior Team American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 424 E. 92nd St. New York, USA vii
Ian J.H. Duncan, PhD, Professor Emeritus, Emeritus Chair in Animal Welfare Department of Animal Biosciences VetBooks.ir University of Guelph 50 Stone Road East Guelph, Ontario, Canada Carine Elkhoraibi, MS, MA Institutional Animal Care and Use Program University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California, USA Daniel Q. Estep, PhD, CAAB Animal Behavior Associates, Inc. Sun City, Arizona, USA Temple Grandin, PhD Department of Animal Science Colorado State University Ft. Collins, Colorado, USA Sophie S. Hall, BSc, PhD Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK Suzanne Hetts, PhD, CAAB Animal Behavior Associates, Inc. Sun City, Arizona, USA Debra F. Horwitz, DVM, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists Veterinary Behavior Consultations St. Louis, Missouri, USA Gary Landsberg, BSc, DVM, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists, Diplomate European College of Animal Welfare and Behavioural Medicine Head, Fear Free Research Vice President, CanCog Technologies Fergus, Ontario, Canada Lori Marino, PhD The Kimmela Center for Animal Advocacy and President, The Whale Sanctuary Project Kanab, Utah, USA Franklin D. McMillan, DVM, Diplomate American College of Animal Welfare Best Friends Animal Society Kanab, Utah, USA David J. Mellor, PhD Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre School of Veterinary Science Massey University New Zealand viii Contributors List
Michael Mendl, PhD Bristol Veterinary School VetBooks.ir University of Bristol Langford House, Langford Bristol, UK Daniel S. Mills, BVSc, PhD, CBiol, FRSB, FHEA, CCAB, Diplomate European College of Animal Welfare and Behavioural Medicine (Behavioural Medicine), Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, European and Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Recognised Specialist in Veterinary Behavioural Medicine Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK Karen L. Overall, MA, VMD, PhD, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists Biology Department University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Atlantic Veterinary College University of Prince Edward Island Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada Elizabeth S. Paul, PhD Bristol Veterinary School University of Bristol Bristol, UK Pamela J. Reid, PhD, CAAB Anti-Cruelty Behavior Team American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 424 E. 92nd St. New York, USA Claire Ricci-Bonot, BSc, MSc Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK Lauren M. Robinson, PhD Domestication Lab Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Vienna, Austria Language Research Center Georgia State University Atlanta, Georgia, USA Amy Robinson-Junker, MS Laboratory Animal Resource Center University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California, USA Contributors Listix
Lynne M. Seibert, DVM, MS, PhD, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists Veterinary Behavior Consultants LLC VetBooks.ir Roswell, Georgia, USA David Shepherdson, PhD Oregon Zoo Portland, Oregon, USA Daniel M. Weary, BSc, MSc, D.Phil. Professor and NSERC Industrial Research Chair University of British Columbia Animal Welfare Program Faculty of Land and Food Systems Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Alexander Weiss, PhD Department of Psychology University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, UK Scottish Primate Research Group Jacqueline Wilhelmy, MS, VMD, Diplomate American College of Veterinary Behaviorists Delaware Valley Veterinary Behavior Quakertown, Pennsylvania, USA James W. Yeates, BSc, BVSc, DWEL, MBA, PhD, FRCVS, Diplomate European College of Animal Welfare and Behavioural Medicine Cats Protection Haywards Heath East Sussex, UK x Contributors List
1 Mental Health in Animals: VetBooks.ir A Veterinary Behaviorist’s View Debra F. Horwitz Veterinary Behavior Consultations, St. Louis, Missouri, USA 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What is Behavior and What The concept of mental health in animals has not is Mental Health? necessarily been an important variable in under- 1.2.1 Behavior standing the animals we interact with and in estab- lishing their overall welfare and well-being. Early Behavior can be broadly defined as what an ani- studies of the behavior of differing species focused mal or person does and how they function within on how certain traits were passed along to off- their environment. One’s behavior is influenced spring and Darwin was the first to correctly posit and affected by the individual’s genetics, environ- that the desire for reproductive success, i.e., putting ment, early experiences, social experiences, and one’s genes into the next generation, drove many encounters with animate and inanimate objects. changes in both form (how the organism looked) The accumulating knowledge in this area led to the and function (what the animal did). Further studies creation of the field of ethology, which seeks to discovered that certain behaviors were not affected understand the adaptive function of animal behav- by environmental circumstances and occurred regu- ior and behavioral characteristics. Ethological larly in response to very specific cues. These were studies now widely utilize the ethogram – a catalog termed instincts, which refers to behaviors that of individual or species behaviors that may include appears in a fully functioning form the first time the frequency and duration of each behavior. they are performed – where no learning is required Ongoing behavior is usually influenced by its (Alcock, 1993). However, other behaviors are the consequences: if the outcome is one that the ani- result of learning: the modification of behavior in mal finds favorable the behavior is likely to occur response to specific circumstances and information again, and, conversely, if the outcome is some- from other individuals and the environment. Over thing less than favorable or even adverse then the time and further study this came to be formulated behavior is less likely to occur in the future (at into ‘learning theory’, which comprised definitions least in that circumstance). This is all controlled and examples of how individuals (both people and by learning, whether through interactions with animals) learn new tasks (Schwartz and Robbins, the environment or with other individuals. Some 1995). Finally, there are behaviors that occur behaviors are more highly motivated and thus because they are a normal part of the animals’ more likely than others to occur; these behaviors behavioral repertoire. For example, obtaining food are more important to the animal’s normal behav- may occur due to information from scent or sight, ioral patterns and may be difficult to deter. determining where the food is readily available, Additionally, changes in the environment, social and so on. Given that so many companion animals organization, illness, anxiety, and stress can result live in our homes, their mental health has taken on in the animal showing alterations in their a greater meaning. behavior. © CAB International 2020. Mental Health and Well-being in Animals, 2nd Edition (ed. F. McMillan) 1
1.2.2 Mental health 1.2.3 How do stress and anxiety factor into mental health and behavior? Assessing the mental health of animals is a relatively VetBooks.ir recent development and has been utilized more At its simplest, anxiety is the anticipation of danger consistently in the past 20 years in companion ani- or threat. Sources of anxiety in companion animals mals. Prior to that time, what was discussed was the can be anything from being left home alone for long welfare of those animals in human care. The most periods of time, uncertain social interactions with commonly used method – originally developed for other animals or humans, the inability to engage in use in farm animals – is known as the Five Freedoms normal species-specific behaviors, and lack of (Farm Animal Welfare Council, 2009) and includes control and predictability in daily life. However, in the following: many cases the source of anxiety may not be readily identifiable. 1. Freedom from hunger and thirst – by ready access Anxiety can cause stress, which is a protective to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and mechanism. When an organism perceives a threat – a vigor. stressor – activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary– 2. Freedom from discomfort – by providing an adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous sys- appropriate environment including shelter and a com- tem occurs, engaging the body’s ‘fight-or-flight’ fortable resting area. response (Mills et al., 2013). This stress response 3. Freedom from pain, injury, or disease – by preven- has physiological, behavioral, and psychological tion or rapid diagnosis and treatment. components and enhances the animal’s ability to 4. Freedom to express normal behavior – by provid- perceive, evaluate, and choose the correct response ing sufficient space, proper facilities, and company of to alleviate and recover from the threat. Not all the animals’ own kind. stress is problematic if it is short term and the ani- 5. Freedom from fear and distress – by ensur- mal is able to return to normal baseline function- ing conditions and treatment which avoid mental ing. If this is not possible, the animal is experiencing suffering. ‘distress’, the mental state that occurs when the circumstances overwhelm the animal’s ability to Another measure is the United States Department cope with the situation (see also Chapter 11, this of Agriculture’s Six Elements to Psychological Well- volume). Distress is highly individual: that which is being in Captive Animals (Kulpa-Eddy et al., 2005), distressing to one animal may not be distressing to which has recently been clarified and updated. another. Chronic distress can occur with frequent Additional approaches include quality-of-life (QOL) exposure to stressors or unrelenting exposure to a assessments and mental health wellness as described stressor that never abates and acts over an extended by McMillan (2002), which focus on a balanced period of time. This can cause chronic dysregula- QOL by recognizing both pleasant and unpleasant tion of the HPA axis and excessive corticosteroid feelings in the areas of social relationships, mental exposure, which may then lead to changes in learn- stimulation, health, food, stress, and control/predict- ing and memory and adversely affect the animal’s ability while incorporating differences in personal overall health. Chronic stress can be due to a health preferences. Others define QOL as the combinations of issue, social conflict with other animals in the home, the animal’s feelings, physical state, and its ability to social isolation, and many other causes. satisfy its nature (Wojciechowska and Hewson, 2005). On its own, anxiety and its accompanying physio- Merriam-Webster (2019) defines mental health as logical changes are probably not pathological when short-lived, but chronic anxiety can lead to chronic the condition of being sound mentally and stress. Anxiety, like stress, can become a chronic state e motionally that is characterized by the absence and compromise the health, welfare, and lifespan of mental illness and by adequate adjustment e specially as reflected in feeling comfortable about of the individual (Dreschel, 2010). Responses to oneself, positive feelings about others, and the bility a anxiety-provoking stimuli are likely influenced by to meet the demands of daily life. early learning, negative experiences during devel- opment, and the individual’s genetics (Mertens and As can be seen, this definition takes in most of the Dodman, 1998). If the same experience is repeat- items discussed in the Five Freedoms and QOL edly encountered, anxiety and apprehension may definitions. occur through sensitization, potentially resulting in 2 D.F. Horwitz
enhanced responses. Stimulus intensity and fre- several months the dog begins to hide when it is quency of encounters may compound the response time to go running. The owner could be upset since VetBooks.ir and various associative processes may accelerate she feels that taking the dog on a daily run provides acquisition of responses (Levine, 2009). Because of the exercise and mental stimulation essential for the this, we must acknowledge and accept that animals animal’s good mental health. However, the dog can and often will refuse to perform behaviors that may find running unpleasant, perhaps because of cause them distress, fear, or pain, and forcing ani- such things as stress when encountering other dogs, mals to do these things is unacceptable. Therefore, frustration from the inability to explore and sniff to provide optimum health and welfare for all pets the environment, or pain from osteoarthritis or we should include anxiety and stress as adverse other physical disorders. It is entirely possible that states that can affect the mental health of compan- in this example something that the owner sees as an ion animals. improper behavioral response to her efforts to ben- efit her dog’s mental well-being is actually the dog’s attempt to protect itself from things which can 1.3 The Intersection of Mental Health harm this well-being. and Behavior Another example is a cat who is friendly to fam- If behavior is what the animal does, then mental ily members but runs and hides whenever company health is how the animal ‘feels’. However, the behav- comes to the house. The family may see this as ior displayed may or may not accurately represent undesirable behavior: being friendly to them but emotional states or the animal’s mental health. The unfriendly to others may be insulting and upsetting meaning of the behavior is based on the animal to owners who expect the cat to behave differently. itself and its early experiences, socialization, genet- However, the cat may not have been sufficiently ics, training, and traumatic events (see Chapter 14, socialized to people early in life and now finds this volume). strangers frightening and stressful. By seeking a The disciplines of veterinary behavior and men- safe hiding place stress and anxiety is alleviated, tal health care in animals overlap at many points. which is beneficial to the cat’s mental health. The Both are concerned with the ability of animals to owner must respect this need to escape; after all, we experience fulfilling and clear social relationships, do not expect every person to be comfortable perform and engage in normal species behaviors, around every other person. have appropriate outlets for mental stimulation, be The divergence of the two disciplines is perhaps provided with appropriate and timely physical health clearest in cases where an animal with excellent men- care, and receive a diet that meets their needs. tal health is performing a normal and natural behav- Additionally, both disciplines recognize that all ani- ior that the owner finds unacceptable. It must be mals need some control and predictability to feel kept in mind that the evolutionary history of com- behaviorally and mentally healthy (see Chapter 6, panion animals spans tens of thousands of years, this volume). Animals should be allowed to say ‘no’; and keeping pets inside human homes is, relatively behaviorists and mental health practitioners agree speaking, a very recent development. It is no sur- that animal caregivers must respect an animal’s prise, then, that there are numerous normal behav- decision not to engage in a particular behavior or iors which companion animals perform that may activity and help the animal learn and understand not be suitable for the household, and are unwanted why, when the behavior is necessary, it must be by caregivers. These include marking with urine performed. Furthermore, the disciplines of behav- or claws, exploratory chewing, climbing, and ior and mental health care also intersect with regard rambunctious activities that result in damage to the to the animal’s response to and ability to function owner or her possessions. These behaviors are com- when the environment or some other aspect of life monly unaccompanied by impaired mental health is stressful. and are often presented to both veterinary behav- The point where the two disciplines can seem to iorists and trainers as behavior problems when in work in opposing directions often depends on the reality they might just be a result of insufficient how a pet owner interprets specific behaviors – as outlets for normal species-specific behaviors, inad- good or bad – and attaches importance to the ani- equate attention to normal animal needs, or unre- mal’s mental health. Consider a dog whom the owner alistic expectations. In other cases, the animal may wants to take running with them every day. After be frustrated by the inability to meet its daily need Mental Health in Animals: A Veterinary Behaviorist’s View 3
for mental stimulation, social interaction, safety, out’ of the problem. Still others will seek assistance and control and predictability, and once these from inappropriate sources (e.g., the internet, VetBooks.ir needs are provided for and the animal is shown friends, or unqualified animal ‘trainers’), which either how to properly meet those needs, the undesired fails to help, makes the problem worse, or increases behavior may cease. So, to illustrate the point of caregiver frustration and decreases willingness to divergence of behavior care and mental health care, keep the pet. Fortunately, prompt and appropriate consider the example of the cat who is destroying intervention by qualified experts can often control the furniture by clawing. Here, addressing the these behaviors and help pets stay in their homes. behavior is essential, but the cat’s mental health Crucially, when behavioral changes accompany does not need help. Conversely, a pet with greatly severe changes in mental health (see Table 1.1), imme- impaired mental health may show no behaviors diate intervention is required. These are behavior that the owner feels need correction. For example, changes and behavior patterns that are not normally a dog experiencing extreme loneliness may simply part of the daily behavioral repertoire, or are normal ‘suffer in silence’, or another dog with the same behaviors performed excessively and that interfere emotional distress may exhibit behavior that is an with the normal functioning of that pet. In these effort to cope with the stress but does not bother cases, specialists in behavioral diagnosis and treat- the pet’s owner, such as relentless digging in a large ment should be consulted. Board-certified veterinary yard behind the house. Here, addressing the ani- behaviorists can be found at https://www.dacvb.org. mal’s mental health is essential, even when there is no ‘behavior problem’ needing correction. 1.3.3 How can we protect our pets from behavioral or mental health problems? 1.3.1 Systemic signs of poor mental health The first thing we can do is educate ourselves about One challenge in assessing behavior and mental normal dog (Horwitz et al., 2014) and cat behavior health is that many of the signs may be attributable so that we understand that unwanted behaviors are to mental disorders, physical disorders, or both (see often attempts to meet species-specific needs for Table 1.1). This crossover in causes means that mental stimulation, social engagement, exercise, and the first step in the evaluation of these signs should a more controllable and predictable environment. be a veterinary visit with a physical examination We also must treat our pets with kindness and and appropriate diagnostic testing to rule out phys- understanding and realize that they do not speak ical health causes. Importantly, however, because it our language. Training is the language by which we is possible for both a mental health issue and a impart the information needed for the pet to under- physical issue to exist at the same time, identifying stand and carry out desired behaviors, which not a physical disorder does not necessary exclude a only ensures that the pet will function well in the mental problem. In cases where both co-exist, human world, but will acquire the ability to flour- treating one or the other may or may not create a ish. All training and interactions should be based change in the behavior; it is usually necessary to on the principles of positive reinforcement (i.e., treat both. rewarding desired behaviors). Finally, we can help our pets develop resilience and flexibility by con- trolling what they are exposed to and minimizing 1.3.2 When does a change in behavior or threats when the pet shows signs of discomfort, mental state require intervention? anxiety, or fear. In this way pets learn that we will The answer to this question will vary from animal to protect them and that we care about their well- animal and household to household. Some homes being. Often, once they learn they are protected will have a very low tolerance for unwanted house they gain the ability to face new challenges with soiling, destruction, and rambunctious behavior. In increased boldness, confidence, and resilience – all most cases these situations do not impair the pet’s contributing to their greater happiness. ability to live a normal life, but without appropriate input some caregivers may become frustrated to the 1.4 Concluding Remarks point of severing their bond with the pet and relin- quishing the animal to a shelter or rescue. Others Changes in mental health and behavior are often may not care as much, believing the pet will ‘grow the first signs of a medical disorder and all abrupt 4 D.F. Horwitz
Table 1.1. Behavioral signs and possible causes: physical disorders versus mental health and/or behavioral disorders. VetBooks.ir Type of systemic Behavioral change Possible physical causesa Behavioral and/or mental change health causes Self-care Excessive self-grooming (Amat Dermatological problems Anxiety (Ohl et al., 2008) or et al., 2016), chewing and licking Nausea, gastrointestinal upset stress skin and fur Illness or pain Displacement behavior Licking inanimate objects or Food allergies Compulsive disorders household items (Bécuwe- Depression or cognitive decline Bonnet et al., 2012) (Landsberg et al., 2011) Changes in sleep – less sleep or sleeping more Alimentary Increased or decreased appetite, Infectious illness Anxiety or stress especially a loss of appetite Irritation from food intake Competition from other animals Vomiting, diarrhea, or constipation Gastritis or colon issues while eating Food allergies Inability to safely access the elimination location Social behaviors Avoiding social interactions and Illness Fear of interactions hiding from people or other Pain Threats from household pets animals (Fureix and Meagher, Unclear interactions with 2015) caregivers Excessive attention seeking behaviors Increase in aggressive signaling and responses; growling, snapping, biting at other animals Locomotor Circling behaviors, spinning Injury Displacement behaviors Light chasing Pain Compulsive disorders Pacing or tremors Neurologic problem Tremors due to fear Excessive licking Brain tumor Anxiety Pain Cognitive changes Vocalization Increased barking or meowing Injury Compulsive disorder Increased aggressive signaling Pain (Bain, 2018) Whining Neurologic disorder Cognitive decline Brain tumor Separation anxiety or distress (Ogata, 2016) Attention seeking Fear Social signaling Destructiveness Destructive behavior toward Pain Separation anxiety or distress household objects and (Ogata, 2016) structures Noise phobias Storm phobia Elimination Elimination of urine (Pryor et al., Metabolic dysfunction Separation anxiety or distress 2001) or stool in unwanted Infection bladder or bowel (Storengen et al., 2014) locations Noise or storm phobias Inability or unwillingness to access correct area Cognitive changes Social issues between animals a Physical and behavioral problems may exist concurrently. In such cases treatment often must focus on both the underlying medical issues and the outward behavior as well as the triggers for the behavior. Mental Health in Animals: A Veterinary Behaviorist’s View 5
changes should be investigated by a veterinarian Applications and Research 7 194–204. http://dx.doi. , for medical disorders that may be contributory. In org/10.1016/j.jveb.2011.07 .003. VetBooks.ir many cases the changes in behavior will diminish Dreschel, N.A. (2010) The effects of fear and anxiety on health and lifespan in pet dogs. Applied Animal or resolve if the animal feels better. However, in Behaviour Science 125, 157–162. http://dx.doi. cases where there is no medical issue or a medical org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.04.003. issue has been resolved, behavioral changes and/or Farm Animal Welfare Council. (2009) Farm animal welfare associated mental health issues might remain. This in Great Britain: Past, present and future. Available at: may occur for two reasons: the animal has learned https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ that the performance of the behavior is reinforcing uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/319292/ and enjoyable, or the environment (both social and Farm_Animal_Welfare_in_Great_Britain_-_Past__ experiential) are still creating stress or untenable Present_and_Future.pdf (accessed 14 Jan 2019). choices for the animal. Fureix, C. and Meagher, R.K. (2015) What can inactivity As caregivers of our animals we are responsible (in its various forms) reveal about affective states in non-human animals? A review. Applied Animal for their physical, mental, and behavioral health. Behaviour Science 171, 8–24. http://dx.doi.org/ This requires that we always consider what our 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.08.036. animals need and that we look at the world through Horwitz, D.F., Ciribassi, J.C., Dale, S. (2014) Decod their eyes. One can begin with the Five Freedoms ing Your Dog. Houghton Mifflin, Harcourt, Boston, discussed in Section 1.2.2. Most importantly, we Massachusetts, USA. must always remember that as sentient beings the Kulpa-Eddy, J.A., Taylor, S., Adams, K.M. (2005) USDA per- animals also deserve consideration as thinking and spective on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR feeling animals. We must realize and provide for a Journal 46, 83–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ilar.46.2.83. good social environment that meets their needs for Landsberg, G.M., DePorter, T., Araujo, J.A. (2011) Clinical exploration, mental stimulation, and safety from signs and management of anxiety, sleeplessness, and cognitive dysfunction in the senior pet. Veterinary harm. We must realize that animals have the right to Clinics: Small Animal Practice 41, 565–590. ‘say no’ to something we want them to do – without Levine, E.D. (2009) Sound sensitivities. In: Horwitz, reprisals. It is our job to figure out why what we ask D.F. and Mills, D.M. (eds.) 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2 The Problems with VetBooks.ir Well-being Terminology Franklin D. McMillan and James W. Yeates Best Friends Animal Society, Kanab, Utah, USA; Cats Protection, Haywards Heath, UK 2.1 Introduction We are far from being able to determine where Suppose you were given the task of looking at one individual humans and animals fall on these scales nonhuman animal (hereafter animal) and measur- of complexity in their evaluations of how things ing that animal’s welfare, well-being, quality of life are going for them, but evidence suggests that all (QOL), and happiness. But time and funding con- conscious beings have some conceptualization of straints allow you to measure only one of these. judging how their lives are faring – by affective and If you pick one, would there be anything important cognitive processes – as going well or not so well, to the animal that you would miss by not being whether the ‘life’ is this moment or over the last sev- able to measure the others? Would your answer be eral years. For example, Kahneman and Riis (2005) the same no matter which concept you chose to suggested that a measure of momentary well-being measure? If you wanted that animal to have the in humans could consist of asking the person to indi- best life, would any of the four concepts be the best cate whether they feel impatient for their current one to look at? situation to end, or would prefer for it to continue. An individual’s judgment of how their own life is When this measure is repeated over a period of time, faring can vary widely in the cognitive complexity of the average summing of the momentary preference that evaluation. We aren’t certain whether and how for continuing or stopping ‘identifies well-being with such judgments are made by different animals, or by the extent to which individuals live their lives in a humans – particularly those lacking verbal capacity state of wishing for the present to extend, as against to convey their thoughts. For many, it may be that wishing they were somewhere else—or not caring such judgments consist simply of feelings based on one way or the other’ (p. 292). Behavioral research, time frames as short as each moment, or possibly in particular preference and aversion studies, have based on the animal’s experiences over several hours indicated that the capacity to signal a desire for or even days prior to the judgment. At the other end one’s current situation to continue or end is exhib- of the cognitive spectrum, judgments of how one’s ited in a wide range of animal species (Kirkden and life is faring can involve not just feeling states but Pajor, 2006). also complex cognitive appraisals (e.g., comparisons How an individual perceives his or her own life with others, having meaning or purpose in one’s to be faring, on a scale of good to bad, is currently life, and a sense of personal accomplishments) and described by an indistinct and confusing number incorporate an extensive time frame dating back of terms. In the human and animal literature alike, decades and a vision forward to one’s life goals. limited agreement has been reached about the mean- Furthermore, in terms of complexity of emotional ing of well-being, welfare, quality of life, happiness, processing, some animals might experience rela- and subjective well-being (SWB) (Novak and tively simple feelings of momentary enjoyment and Suomi, 1988; Clark et al., 1997; Hetts et al., 2005; suffering, while others’ assessments may be based, at Nordenfelt, 2006; Green and Mellor, 2011). While all least partly, on more complex emotions such as of these concepts refer in some way to how much one relief, hope, jealousy, achievement, and self-worth. likes the life one is leading, at present authors 8 © CAB International 2020. Mental Health and Well-being in Animals, 2nd Edition (ed. F. McMillan)
frequently – but in different ways – equate or differ- another, as when an individual has an undetected entiate terms, use terms interchangeably, and define cancer. Adaptation can also disconnect life conditions VetBooks.ir terms by using other similar ill-defined terms. Different and life experiences such as after one loses their studies often use the same terms to refer to different vision or the use of one or more limbs; in these cases phenomena or different terms to refer to the same or disability causes permanent functional impairment very similar phenomena. Factors as immaterial as but after adaptation the individual often regains very geographical preferences contribute to the confusion, high levels of Well-being with positive life experi- as, for instance, in the animal literature where ‘wel- ences (humans: Duggan and Dijkers, 2001; Diener fare’ is the European term for the North American et al., 2006; animals: Bauer et al., 1992; Dickerson ‘well-being’ (Jones, 2004; Nordenfelt, 2006). et al., 2015). We will return to this conundrum later. Moreover, certain languages may not contain terms for concepts which bear different terms in other lan- 2.2 Similarities and Differences Between guages (e.g., French uses bien-être with no obvious Well-being Concepts in Animals equivalent for ‘welfare’). To illustrate the terminology problem, Table 2.1 On the basis of their usage in the scientific literature, presents reference citations from the animal litera- the different Well-being concepts can be found to ture in which different terms have been equated have extensive similarities as well as some dissimi- (stated explicitly as equals or used interchangeably larities. This approach provides an important starting as synonyms). The human literature is equally if not point in understanding the entanglement that has more problematic while also including additional evolved between these terms. However, no matter terms such as emotional well-being (Diener and how meticulously we analyze the terms, they will not Lucas, 2000) and life satisfaction (Lyubomirsky come out at the other end as clearly the same or et al., 2005). clearly distinct. The following discussion will focus The first challenge in scrutinizing this field is primarily on the animal literature while including deciding on a term to use to refer collectively to relevant information from human literature where it these similar concepts – that is, to give a name to can help provide some explanatory clarification. the overall topic under discussion. To date no single agreed-upon term (or conceptualization) has emerged to describe the different evaluations individuals 2.2.1 Common attributes among Well-being (human and nonhuman) make regarding their lives, concepts in animals the events happening to them, their bodies and Represents the individual’s perspective minds, and the circumstances in which they live – in and perception short, how much one views his/her own life as ‘the good life’ (Diener, 2006; Brülde, 2007; Yeates, The first feature shared broadly among Well-being 2017). For the purposes of the present chapter this concepts is that it is, at the minimum, based largely umbrella term will be Well-being1 – capitalized to if not solely on a view from within, of how the indi- distinguish it from the use of ‘well-being’ as an indi- vidual perceives and appraises aspects of his/her own vidual concept – and ‘Well-being concepts’ will refer life. This means it is not something given to the collectively to the terms welfare, well-being, QOL, individual (Broom, 1996). One could bestow the happiness, and SWB. same exact objectively described living conditions to As we will see, some interpretative discrepancies ten different humans or animals – e.g., shelter, food, among these terms are difficult to reconcile. One social companionship, stimulation/entertainment, of the most important reasons for this challenge is and even health – and because of vast differences in rooted in a fundamental difference regarding what preferences, likes, dislikes, etc., the result could be the terms are referring to. The Well-being concepts ten different levels of Well-being, from very low to may be about (i) the quality of one’s life conditions, very high. The individual’s perspective and perception or (ii) the quality of one’s life experiences. The former has been described in the literature in animals for include physical health, biological functioning, and welfare (Sandem et al., 2002; Bracke, 2007; Green environmental factors; the latter include only con- and Mellor, 2011) and QOL (Wiseman-Orr et al., scious experiences. The two can be strongly 2006; Bracke, 2007; Scott et al., 2007; Taylor and linked, as when an individual is being chased by a Mills, 2007), and in humans for QOL (Diener, predator, or they may be uncoupled from one 2006; Peterson, 2006; Scott et al., 2007; Taylor and The Problems with Well-Being Terminology 9