masquerades as an explanation, or an explanation looks
like an argument.
Practice
How could you revise the following weak explana-
tions to make them strong?
1. Everyone on our street does not have electricity
because our power went out.
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
2. My new CD player is not working since I ate that
ice cream sundae.
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
Answer
1. A good explanation would give reasons, or new
information, about the power outage. Responses
might be “because Hurricane Graham hit here
yesterday,” or “because the wiring is old and
needs to be replaced.” Any real reasons for a
power outage would turn this weak explanation
into a strong one.
2. In this case, the explanans have nothing to do
with the explanadum. To make a good explana-
tion, you would have to give relevant reasons as
to why the CD player is not working, such as,
“since my brother dropped it” or “since the bat-
teries went dead.”
Distinguishing an Explanation
from an Argument
An explanation helps you to understand a certain fact
by giving reasons that are causes of the fact. It answers
the question,“why?”An argument, on the other hand,
tries to convince you of the truth of its conclusion by
giving reasons (premises) that are evidence for the con-
clusion. Simply put, an explanation provides causes,
and an argument provides evidence.
Even when you understand this basic difference,
though, it can sometimes be difficult to tell one from
the other. Why is it important to be able to distinguish
an explanation from an argument? There are times
when someone will label his or her explanation as an
argument. That is, they will try to convince you of
something by telling you its causes, as opposed to giv-
ing you evidence. There are three specific ways in which
the two differ. They are:
1. recommendations and value judgments
2. feelings and beliefs
3. future outcomes
Each of these will be discussed in detail.
Recommendations and
Value Judgments
Many arguments express a recommendation, or value
judgment. They then try to convince you of the good-
ness or rightness of it. Explanations do not contain such
recommendations or judgments. They are about
undisputed facts and not attempts at persuasion. For
example, here is a conclusion to an argument:
The best place for a steak is Louie’s Steak
Shack. They use only high quality meat,
and the décor is fabulous.
How do we know this is not an explanation? It is
a judgment on the part of the speaker, meant to rec-
ommend.“The best place for a steak” is opinion, rather
than fact. It could however become an explanation if
–EXPLANATION OR ARGUMENT?–
133
there was some factual basis for deeming the restaurant
“best place for a steak.” One way to do this is to factu-
ally state another person’s opinion. For instance:
My cousin says the best place for a steak
is Louie’s Steak Shack because they use
only high quality meat, and the décor is
fabulous.
Now, we have a simple statement of fact (what the
cousin says) followed by its causes (why the cousin has
that opinion—the quality of the meat, and the décor).
Remember that explanations are about something that
is already accepted as fact. Judgments and recommen-
dations are not facts.
Practice
What is the fact or judgment in each of the following?
1. My career is on the fast track. I think my boss is
going to promote me.
2. The helmet law should be repealed because
adults can decide for themselves whether or not
to wear a helmet.
3. With such clean beaches and great restaurants,
the Caribbean is the best place for a vacation.
4. Since it gets great gas mileage, my new car is sav-
ing me money.
Answers
1. Judgment: “My career is on the fast track.”
2. Judgment: “The helmet law should be repealed.”
3. Judgment: “The Caribbean is the best place for a
vacation.”
4. Fact: “My new car is saving me money.”
Feelings and Beliefs
Distinguishing between arguments and explanations
can be tricky when they involve statements about how
someone thinks or feels, believes or disbelieves.We have
already determined that explanations are not value
judgments or recommendations. Words like “believe”
or “feel” are often a part of such judgments. But, they
can also be a part of an explanation.
For example, you are considering buying stock in
a company that two of your friends work for. One tells
you,“Our company is doing really well. Sales are high,
and one of our products won an award.” The other says,
“Economists believe our company is doing really well,
because our sales are high, and one of our products
won an award.” The word “believe” is a warning signal
–EXPLANATION OR ARGUMENT?–
134
When Evidence Is Missing
When do people tend to use explanation when they really need to make an argument? When they
are trying to justify an opinion. Think about the persuasive advertisements examined in Lesson 9.
When an advertiser wants to convince you to buy her product, she needs an argument with evi-
dence. But typically, there is no evidence. One detergent is just as good as another, one brand of
tires performs equally with other brands. How then can the advertiser construct an argument with-
out evidence? By using explanations that either give no new information, or give irrelevant infor-
mation, such as “our dish detergent is much better than Brand X, because it smells like lemons.”
When you see through these types of claims, you are distinguishing between explanations and
evidence. Critical thinking skills help you to understand that weak or unsubstantiated explana-
tions are no substitute for scarce or missing evidence.
that the statement is simply an opinion. But look
closely. Whose belief is it? Your friend, the speaker, is
not one of the economists. She is simply stating a fact,
which is that the economists hold a belief that her com-
pany is doing well.
The first friend is trying to convince you that her
conclusion (“our company is doing really well”) is valid
by giving you evidence. The second is explaining the
reasons why a group of people believe something. Per-
haps you won’t buy the stock after either friends’ state-
ment, but if you are thinking critically, you know the
motivation of each.
Fast Forward
What about the future? If someone is talking about
what will happen tomorrow, you might think it must
be an argument. Explanations are about undisputed
facts, and arguments are about judgments and opin-
ions. Can there be a fact about something that has not
even happened yet? The answer is yes. Just because you
see the words “tomorrow,”“next week,” or “some day,”
does not mean you are looking at an argument.
Here are a few examples of explanadums about
the future:
This fall, the leaves will turn color before drop-
ping to the ground.
Someday, we will all die.
I am going to get my hair cut next week.
The point is that facts are not just about things
that have already happened. There are many things
about the future that we can accept with certainty. Do
not be fooled by references to the future. When you pay
careful attention to the context of the argument or
explanation, you can tell the difference between the
two, regardless of whether they have to do with last
week or next week.
Practice
Label each statement as an (A) argument or an (E)
explanation.
___ 1. We should not have school on Saturdays
because we need time for recreation.
___ 2. The reason my credit rating is high is because
I never make late payments.
___ 3. If you worked out more, you would lose
weight, because exercise burns calories.
___ 4. The death penalty should be abolished
because two wrongs do not make a right.
Answers
1. Argument
2. Explanation
3. Explanation
4. Argument
In Short
Good explanations are helpful. They give people the
information they need to solve problems and under-
stand situations. They differ from arguments in a num-
ber of key ways. Explanations answer the question,
“why?” by giving reasons that are the causes of a par-
ticular fact. Arguments try to convince you of their con-
clusions by presenting evidence for them. While
explanations are about facts, arguments can be value
judgments or recommendations. Understanding these
differences allows you to see through poor arguments
that aim to convince you to do, buy, or think something
based on little or no evidence. Being able to recognize
and formulate good explanations is a valuable critical
thinking skill.
–EXPLANATION OR ARGUMENT?–
135
–EXPLANATION OR ARGUMENT?–
136
Skill Building Until Next Time
■Listen for explanations in conversation with friends and family. How often do you hear irrelevant
explanans or circular reasoning?
■Imagine you want to start a small business. You have no experience, and you need funding from
your bank. How would you explain your idea to a bank loan officer?
MOST HIGH SCHOOL students are familiar with the ACT and the SAT, tests that are used
by colleges and universities to make admissions decisions. After college, graduate exams
such as the GRE, GMAT, and LSAT are taken if you are interested in attending gradu-
ate school. All of these tests include sections that measure critical thinking skills. They use various types of
questions, such as those based on reading passages, scientific experiments, and written opinion and argument.
Many critical thinking tests are similar to one another. For instance, the ACT critical reading questions
use a format like that found in the SAT. The GRE Analytical Writing Test is comparable to sections in the
GMAT and LSAT. Instead of repeating information that applies to each test, we will focus on sections in each
test that are unique.
LESSON
Critical
Thinking for
Exams
LESSON SUMMARY
Increasingly, critical thinking exams are given not only to students, but
also to those seeking employment or promotions in the workforce. This
lesson shows you what critical thinking questions look like, and how
to use this book to approach them effectively.
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