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Externalities and biodiversity valuation’
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One of the most important reasons for loss of biodiversity, is that conservation and sustainable use of natural resources is generally not a viable financial option, and this is because of a combination of market and policy failures. Put simply, natural resources are under- valued because no account is taken of the time it takes to produce the next harvest, nor any costs involved in managing lands for future harvests, nor the environmental and social costs associated with loss of products. Internalising these costs, so that parties trading in a particular product pay a larger part of these costs, is a central element in dealing with the “externalities” that...
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- ASEAN BIODIVERSITY
- ABOUT YOU AND US Readers’ Corner Dear Co-Directors, in highlighting the problem of forest fires Let me thank you for the very informa- and smoke pollution in the region, but Editor-in-Chief tive and diverse ASEAN Biodiversity maga- rather disappointing in that hard data on Monina T. Uriarte zine Vol. 1 No. 4, October to December the impact of forest fires on biodiversity Managing Editor 2001 issue, which you sent me. was lacking. Also, case studies on suc- Bridget P. Botengan In behalf of the Foundation for the cessful community fire management were Philippine Environment, I would like to lacking. Creative Artist Nanie S. Gonzales extend my gratitude for In the Upper Nan Watershed Manage- including us in your ment Project in North Thailand, the forest Circulation Manager mailing list. area burnt has been reduced from 23% in Arlene Balauro Angelica Castro This special issue 1998 to less than 2% in each of the last is so significant con- 4 years due to a successful cooperative sidering the very suc- Royal Forest Department – Community EDITORIAL BOARD cessful 3D modelling Fire Management Programme, with Dan- activity in Pu Mat, ish assistance. The area covers 1007 km2 Chairpersons Vietnam, which I was and includes a population of 20,000 in Gregorio I. Texon John R. MacKinnon a part of. Again, my the watershed in 45 villages located in thanks to ARCBC, two National Forest Reserves. Also the Members particularly to Mr. Giacomo time of burning on agricultural fields has Aida B. Lapis Rambaldi. The lessons from the training been delayed from mid-February to late Lauro Punzalan Imelda Pangga are so applicable to what we are advo- March resulting in a shorter period of Alma Logmao cating in the Philippines for biodiversity smoke and haze pollution. conservation as a foundation for sustain- The process for effective fire manage- Advisors able development. ment is simple, and similar for all com- Mike Appleton Giacomo Rambaldi We hope to receive regular copies of munity-based natural resource manage- Lewie Dekker your newsmagazine and other related ment issues. The process requires facili- Jose Lambiza materials in the future. tators working at the community level: 1. Baseline data collection on the ASEAN Regional Centre for Fernando Ramirez causes of fires, time of burning, Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) Area Coordinator - Luzon areas burnt, conflicts caused and the Headquarters: P.O. Box 35015 College, Laguna 4031 Convenor, Operations Group present community rules and regu- Philippines Foundation for the Philippine lations. Tels.: +63-49.536-1659 or 536-4042 Environment 2. Training and awareness on the en- Telefax: +63-49.536-3173 or 536-2865 vironmental damage from uncon- E-mail: contact.us@arcbc.org.ph !!! Website: www.arcbc.org.ph trolled fires, and the use of facilita- Dear Co-Directors, tors to bring leaders of neighbouring ARCBC Annex It is my great pleasure to acknowledge villages together to solve conflicts Ninoy Aquino Parks and Wildlife Nature Center North Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, 1156 that I have received copies of ASEAN over damages caused by fires and P.O. Box 1614 QC CPO, Philippines Biodiversity. The articles are so useful, other Natural Resource Management Tels.: +63-2.925-8406 / 925-8407 interesting and informative that I can’t (NRM) issues. Fax : +63-2.925-8408 express my appreciation in language. I 3. After two or three meetings, the vil- Email: publications@arcbc.org.ph wish ASEAN Biodiversity a long and wide lage leaders recognised the need to Technical Assistance Service Contract: circulation. form networks (in the Nan Water- SECA (France) in association with EDG (UK), shed Management Project – the for- GTZ (Germany) and CPRD-DLO (Netherlands) Professor Md. Mustafizur Rahman mation of Village Watershed Net- Printed by: Wordshop Specialists Network, Inc. Dept. of Crop Botany works). The networks agree on com- No. of Copies: 5,000 Bangladesh Agricultural University munity boundaries for responsibility Mymensingh, Bangladesh for improved NRM, and the strength- Disclaimer: Views or opinions expressed ening of the existing rules and regu- herein do not necessarily represent any official !!! lations on NRM. view of the European Union, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Secretariat, Dear Co-Directors, 4. The institutionalization of the net- or the Department of Environment and Natural I recently received a copy of Vol. 1 works through the local administra- Resources. The authors are responsible for any (1&2) of your magazine ASEAN tion (Tambon and District), and rec- data or information presented in their articles. Biodiversity. This is an excellent and most ognition of the network rules. useful publication. The strength of the process is that it is simple and based on the existing com- Letters, articles, suggestions and Stephen J. Richards munity NRM rules that, in most cases, are photos are welcome and should be addressed to: Vertebrate Department weak or cannot be enforced. The process South Australian Museum can minimise the burning of forest areas The Managing Editor ASEAN Biodiversity North Terrace within two years. ARCBC Annex, Ninoy Aquino Parks Adelaide, S.A. 5000 and Wildlife Nature Center, Australia Peter Hoare North Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, 1156 Project Coordinator P.O. Box 1614 QC CPO, Philippines !!! Fax: +63-2.925-8408 Upper Nan Watershed E-mail: publications@arcbc.org.ph Dear Co-directors Management Project, The issue of ASEAN Biodiversity Vol. Nan, Thailand 1 No. 3 titled “A Burning Issue“ was useful Email: phoare@loxinfo.co.th 2 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- ABOUT YOU AND US Letter from the NBRU of Cambodia Dear Readers, This will provide various stakeholders a better Cambodia officially joined the ASEAN Regional appreciation of the economic importance of the Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) in early biodiversity of the ASEAN region. 2002, and is currently trying to catch up with the I encourage all our readers to get copies of accomplishments of the other ASEAN member coun- ASEAN Biodiversity so that more people will get a tries participating in ARCBC. We do appreciate the clearer understanding of the urgency of protecting opportunity given to us to expand our networking, and conserving our biological resources. research, database, and training efforts in biodiversity conservation. In May 2002, ARCBC conducted a thematic work- shop in the Philippines on the economic valuation of biodiversity. One of the presentations empha- sized that economic valuation could become a Kol Vathana powerful management tool and when used along- Deputy Director and side social, scientific and spiritual studies of NBRU Coordinator-Cambodia biodiversity, could present a convincing argument Department of Nature Conservation for conservation. As such, I am pleased that the and Protection June 2002 issue of ASEAN Biodiversity focuses on Ministry of Environment resource valuation and revenue-sharing mechanisms. Kingdom of Cambodia Contents Vol. 2, No. 2 " April-June 2002 About You And Us Bookmarks Profiles Readers’ Corner 2 Forest valuation: from science Letter from the NBRU of Cambodia 3 fiction to money on the table 34 Second quarter in a nutshell 4 3rd Research Conference of the ASEAN Regional Centre Editorial for Biodiversity Conservation Conservation dividends 7 Economic valuation of biodiversity 35 Surfing the web...of life 36 Special Reports An overview of valuation techniques: 8th Report of the ARCBC-co-funded Philippine Endemic Species Tarutao National Park – Advantages and limitations 8 Satun Province, Thailand 44 Conservation Project of the Economic valuation of the Leuser Frankfurt Zoological Society Ecosystem in Sumatra 17 New species discovered in Ways to estimate the value of forest Panay, Philippines 37 catchments 21 Vietnam hosts the world’s most How markets alter the effectiveness of endangered primates 38 enforcement, payments and agricultural projects near protected areas 25 Three Black-faced spoonbills “rediscovered” on the Philippine islands 39 Lorentz National Park – Province of New bird species discovered Paniai, Irian Jaya, Indonesia 50 in Cambodia 39 Celebrating Earth Day 2002 40 Database International Day for Biological Asean plants database now on-Line 58 Diversity Focusing on forests 42 Publications A profile of the protected area World Environment Day Training Resources Database Entries system of Singapore 30 Give Earth a chance 43 Capsule reviews 59 ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 3
- ABOUT YOU AND US Second quarter in a nutshell June 26 – A rare green neighbouring West Bengal materials and sustainable June 5 – Several of the turtle, about 60 cm wide state of India a strong economic development at the world’s foremost ocean and weighing more than 70 shield against sea storms. local level, and provision of agencies, including the United kg, reappeared after 40 funding for cooperation Nations Environment years and laid eggs on June 11 – Environment projects with the world Programme (UNEP), have Koh Samui in Thailand. ministers from Brunei, community. created an Internet-based Guards would be deployed a Cambodia, Indonesia, Oceans Atlas week before hatching in Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, June 6 – Australia and (www.oceanatlas.org) to help August to prevent more theft. the Philippines, Singapore, the Republic of Korea reverse the decline and Killing sea turtles and taking Thailand, and Vietnam announced plans to work promote the sustainable away their eggs is illegal in signed a pact to help together to protect birds development of oceans. The Thailand, punishable by up to each other tackle the land that migrate between the Atlas provides users with four years in jail and/or a and forest fires that have two countries. The East continuously updated data on fine of 40,000 baht. Green periodically blighted the Asian-Australasian Flyway the state of the world’s turtles have all but gone from region’s agriculture and extends from the Arctic oceans, maps, development Koh Samui but are often tourist industries with choking through Asia to Australia and trends and threats to human seen laying eggs in Malaysia clouds of smoke. Smoke and New Zealand. Birds fly health from the deteriorating and Indonesia. haze caused by massive through this route twice a marine environment. It is forest fires in 1997 and year from north to south and designed to be an June 26 – The Philippines’ 1998 cost regional econo- back, travelling up to 25,000 encyclopaedic resource and Department of Environment mies US$9 billion, mainly in km per year. Millions of the world’s foremost and Natural Resources agriculture, transport, and wading birds, like the Eastern information clearinghouse and (DENR) Secretary Heherson T. tourism. Each country will Curlew make this journey, online forum for experts in Alvarez asked University of cooperate in developing and stopping at wetlands in Korea ocean issues. To reach the Philippines (UP) President implementing measures to and Australia along the way. broader audiences, a CD- Francisco Nemenzo to help prevent fires and provide Australia already has bilateral ROM and other media will save the UP Arboretum, early warning systems. Under migratory bird protection supplement the website. one of the last remaining the agreement, ASEAN agreements with Japan and forests within Metro countries would allow fire- the Peoples’ Republic of June 3-15 – European Manila. Located in Quezon fighting and search-and-rescue China. Union ministers and City, the Arboretum is home personnel and equipment to ambassadors ratified the to trees, shrubs and herba- transit through their territo- June 5 – The World Wide Kyoto climate treaty at a ceous plants that are ries. This is the first regional Fund for Nature (WWF) United Nations ceremony, cultivated for scientific and arrangement in the world to celebrated the signing of the handing in papers from their educational purposes. It is collectively tackle land and Tri-national Wetlands respective nations. The currently threatened by the forest fires and its resultant Initiative, a historic interna- ratification means that operation of an open transboundary haze pollution. tional wetlands conservation national legislatures had garbage dumpsite, as well as agreement between Australia, approved the pact, aimed at encroachment by a growing June 7 – The Philippines Indonesia and Papua New cutting polluting emissions of local community. joined Brazil, China, Guinea. The Initiative is a greenhouse gases, blamed Colombia, Costa Rica, commitment to work together for rising global temperatures. June 17 – Threatened by Ecuador, India, Indonesia, to achieve sustainable Participants included Ireland, global warming, depleting Kenya, Mexico, Peru, South management of 3 million ha the Netherlands, Spain, biodiversity and rising fears Africa, and Venezuela in the of tropical wetlands identified Sweden, Germany, Denmark, of natural disasters, Group of Like-Minded as global priorities for Austria, Belgium, Britain, Bangladesh recently Megadiversity Countries conservation and contained Finland, France, Greece, Italy, launched a drive to put for the Conservation and within existing protected areas Luxembourg and Portugal. at least 20% of the Sustainable Use of - Kakadu National Park Margot Wallstrom, the country under forests. The Biological Diversity during (Australia), Wasur National European Commissioner for 20% forest cover is needed the 4th Preparatory Commit- Park (Indonesia) and Tonda the Environment, represented by 2015 to offset the tee Meeting for the World Wildlife Management Area the European Commission. impact of global warming Summit on Sustainable (Papua New Guinea). The and shield the country from Development in Bali, agreement will greatly May 27 – The IUCN/SSC frequent storms coming from Indonesia. The group improve the management of Asian Elephant Specialist the Bay of Bengal. Forests represents almost 70% of the these parks, and encourage Group met to draw up an now cover only 9% of the planet’s biological diversity the creation of other action plan for elephant country’s land. Sundarban, and around 45% of the protected areas. Conservation conservation in all of the 13 the country’s biggest world’s population. Member- benefits include cooperative range states, following mangrove forest and a ship in the group will allow action on common threats continued pressure from World Heritage Site, is partners to promote and and the protection of deforestation, hunting and facing decay as thousands conserve their country’s rich numerous endangered species major changes in land use. of trees suffered a “top biodiversity through the and millions of migratory The conference will focus on dying” disease without development of joint projects waders and waterfowl. major issues facing the Asian remedy. The Sundarban is in making inventories of its WWF’s Living Waters elephant in the wild, including home to Royal Bengal tigers resources, investment in the Campaign has recognized their virtual extinction in and hundreds of other use of endogenous technolo- this major contribution to Vietnam, widespread land wildlife species and provides gies that support the wetland conservation as a conversion on the Indonesian Bangladesh and conservation of genetic “Gift to the Earth”. island of Sumatra and also 4 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- ABOUT YOU AND US the potential for conservation for Sustainable Tourism and convert cropland to woods planet. Pacific Island coun- efforts in the largely un- the Convention on Biological would raise forest and grass tries have places of out- studied forests of Myanmar. Diversity’s Guidelines for cover in China by 5%. The standing heritage value, but Sustainable Tourism in resulting green belts could only one site, East Rennell May 23 – The “Greening Vulnerable Ecosystems; create reduce wind speeds by 30 to Island in the Solomon the World Summit on an international accreditation 50% and cut sand and dust Islands, has been nominated Sustainable Development” body for ecotourism and by 99% over barren land. and included on the World initiative was launched in sustainable tourism as well as Heritage list. East Rennell is Johannesburg, South Africa to determine measures to May 14 – Bangladesh and the largest example on Earth ensure that the World Summit ensure that local people India will work together of a raised atoll. It also has is hosted in a way that benefit from ecotourism. under a United Nations the largest freshwater lake, demonstrates environmental plan to protect the Te Nggano, in the Pacific, a best practice May 16 – The Philippines’ ecosystem and biodiversity unique habitat for many while countering Department of Environ- of Sundarban, the world’s species of plants, birds and the impact of ment and Natural biggest mangrove forest animals that are found 60,000 expected Resources (DENR) pre- shared by the two countries. nowhere else on Earth. delegates. By sented the results of the UNESCO declared the taking steps to Philippine Biodiversity Sundarban a world heritage April 25 – The British reduce waste Conservation Priorities site in 1997, and the U.N. Antarctic Survey announced and encourage the efficient Project (PBCPP), which Development Programme has that armies of barnacles, use of water and energy, the identified, assessed, and funded projects to save it mollusks, sea worms, and initiative will ease the burden prioritized specific geographi- from degradation. Nearly other marine organisms of the WSSD on the cal areas for biodiversity two-thirds of the 9,630- are travelling on discarded environment. It will also leave conservation. Spearheaded by square-km Sundarban lies in plastic and other human- a legacy the DENR’s Protected Areas Bangladesh and the rest in made rubbish and of projects that will bring and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), India, stretching along the invading Antarctica and about improvements in Conservation International Bay of Bengal. Sundarban, tropical islands, threatening the quality of the environment (CI), and the University of the which is home to the native species. The findings in poor and rural communi- Philippines (UP), the project endangered royal Bengal are based on a 10-year study ties over the long term. had the participation of some tigers and a number of other of human litter washed More information can be 300 local and international unique species such as the ashore on 30 remote islands obtained from scientists from more than Sundari tree, is currently around the globe. Regulations www.greeningthewssd.com. 100 institutions and identified facing a number of threats forbidding the dumping of 170 terrestrial and inland including illegal poaching, the waste from ships has begun May 20 – Over 1,100 water priority areas and 26 felling of trees, and dwindling to make a difference, but delegates from 130 countries marine priority areas. The freshwater flow. more needs to be done attended the World project also set the much- because once an invading Ecotourism Summit in needed direction for the organism gets into an area, it Quebec to ensure that Philippine conservation is impossible to remove it. ecotourism follows a community as a whole, and Studies will be expanded to sustainable path. The summit, provided geographical include other islands, such as an initiative of the World information on areas that the Andamans, L’Ile Tourism Organization and the need urgent attention. Amsterdam, Bermuda, United Nations Environment Outputs included two-sided Chagos, Cocos/Christmas Programme, was realized in coloured maps, a CD-ROM and Trinidad. partnership with Tourisme database and a report that Québec and the Canadian provides additional informa- April 19 – Peter Ng, director Tourism Commission. tion on the priority areas. of a museum on biodiversity Participants were expected to Photo courtesy of UNESCO at the National University of define the content and limits May 15 – China announced East Rennell Island World Singapore, announced that of the term ecotourism itself, plans to spend several Heritage Site Singapore’s only unique so as to prevent its abuse hundred billion yuan in the wild animals – the Cream- and the dilution of its next 10 years to protect May 8 – Australia and coloured Giant Squirrel and meaning; develop interna- forests and plant green UNESCO signed a formal the Banded Leaf Monkey – tional standards for belts to combat blinding Memorandum of Under- face extinction due to ecotourism by translating sandstorms, illegal logging, standing on World urbanisation and shrinking principles and guidelines such and rapid soil erosion. Heritage issues in the forests. Less than 20 Banded as the World Tourism Recurring sandstorms have Asia-Pacific. Since the Leaf Monkeys and no more Organization’s Global Code been blamed in part on region is under-represented than four squirrels still live in of Ethics, the UNEP Principles overgrazing, over-harvesting on the World Heritage List what is left of the tiny island of timber, forest clearance for and a number of countries in nation’s forests. Their likely cropland and rampant the region have only recently extinction will mean the end overuse of water resources. joined the World Heritage of the last animal sub-species China has earmarked 10 Convention, the Memoran- found only in Singapore. The billion yuan (US$1.21 billion) dum will help Australia and government is currently a year for natural forest UNESCO work together in working with local groups to protection efforts formally partnership with regional study and protect the animals. launched in 2000, one of six nations in promoting the But with only 3% of the Photo courtesy of World Ecotourism Summit key forestry programs to be Convention and managing island set aside for parks, Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve, underway by the end of cultural and natural values in efforts to breed the animals Québec 2002. A seeding program to this heritage-rich part of the in captivity and reintroduce ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 5
- ABOUT YOU AND US them to the forests are likely wood chips, which expired in Species (CITES); restriction or granite country. Not logged to fail. April. Indonesia’s rainforests elimination of commercial for 30 years, it is the last have been over-logged for wildlife trade across the unprotected remnant in the April 17 – Researchers years. region and strengthening of New England region. The IPA have identified a new order government capacity to is also home to at least 15 of insects known as April 12 - The Exploration protect wildlife in protected flora species and 12 rare Mantophasmatodea, a Company (www.theexploration areas and forest reserves. and/or endangered fauna predatory animal that company.com) has released species, including the glossy resembles a mix between a the Wide Ranging World black cockatoo, the masked stick insect and a preying Map, featuring ecological and owl and the spotted-tailed mantis. This first discovery cultural details never before quoll. of a new insect order since shown in a world wall map. 1915 brings the total The map replaces elevation April 5 – Over 150 number of insect orders to with the rendition of terrain participants convened in The 31. The existence of a living (deserts, forests, savanna). In Hague for the 16th session population was discovered addition to displaying all of the Global Biodiversity Photo courtesy of Richard Grassy on Brandberg Mountain in countries, active border Forum (GBF) to tackle key Rhino in Royal Chitwan National western Namibia. Brandberg disputes and key cities, the Park biodiversity issues prior to is a 120-million year old map notes cultural regions the 6th meeting of the massif, isolated from other (Kashmir, Scotland, April 8 – Nepal’s Depart- Conference of the Parties to mountains by hundreds of Transylvania) and prominent ment of National Parks and the Convention on Biological miles of barren sand. indigenous nations (Kurds, Wildlife Conservation Diversity, and in the run-up to Palestinians, Inuit). The map (DNPWC) revealed that 39 the World Summit on also indicates population endangered one-horned Sustainable Development. The density and areas where rhinoceros have been GBF focused on business, natural vegetation has been found dead, most due to communication and liveli- replaced with cropland, along poaching, during the past 12 hoods since these are the with marine pollution, months in Royal Chitwan underpinnings of both the radioactive contamination, National Park. One-horned sustainability and biodiversity and destroyed rainforests. rhinos are critically endan- debates. Key issues are: gered around the world and Managing Forest Ecosystems April 12 – Delegates at the slightly more than 1,800 for Sustainable Livelihoods; Photo courtesy of National Museum of Namibia Conference of the Parties to one-horned rhinos presently Biodiversity Plans for Brandberg Massif the Convention on Biological survive in the wild. Listed as Business; and Mainstreaming Diversity discussed the a UNESCO World Heritage Biodiversity – the Role of April 17 – IUCN’s World Global Strategy for Plant Site, Royal Chitwan National Communication, Education Commission on Protected Conservation, and agreed Park in the Terai, the southern and Public Awareness. Areas (WCPA) announced the on targets to guide and plains of the Kingdom of availability of key guidelines monitor the progress of its Nepal, is home to 529 one- April 4 – In a bid to for protected areas in East implementation. Sustainable horned rhinos, according to a alleviate increasing pressures Asia, namely: Guidelines for use, capacity building, rhino census in 1999. Their on various ecosystems, Tourism in Parks and education and awareness, numbers are up from a IUCN’s Commission on Protected Areas of East Asia; increased networking, and census conducted in 1994, Ecosystem Management Guidelines for the Implemen- community involvement are which put the rhino popula- (CEM) provides expert tation of an Exchange vital elements of the Strategy. tion in the park at 466. guidance on integrated Programme for Protected ecosystem approaches to Areas in East Asia; Guide- April 10 – Long-term studies April 5 – The Banbai tribal the management of lines for Financing Protected by the Wildlife Conservation people of New South natural and modified Areas in East Asia; and the Society (WCS) show that Wales have made a ecosystems. From 2002 to Directory of Protected Areas uncontrolled hunting and decision to manage and 2004 CEM will establish in East Asia – People, trade form the greatest conserve their Wattleridge baseline information on state- Organisations and Places. threats to wildlife and traditional land for the of-the-art restoration methods These are the results of wild lands in Asia. Current protection and conservation in different ecosystem types projects initially outlined in patterns of hunting and of its natural and cultural such as forests, arid lands, the “Regional Action Plan for wildlife trade could drive values, making it the area’s mangroves and coral reefs. Protected Areas in East Asia” wildlife to extinction. It adds first indigenous protected Indicators will be identified as (1996) and completed with that over half the prime area (IPA). Wattleridge the first step to assessing the the support of the Nature protected areas in tropical includes 480 hectares of status of ecosystems and Conservation Bureau of Asia have already lost at botanically unique defining categories of Japan. least one large mammal due bushland on outcropping ecosystem threats. CEM will to hunting. Economically also focus on assessing and April 15 – Indonesia is valuable species such as promoting practical applica- planning to impose a Sumatran and Javan rhinos tions of the Convention on permanent ban on log and Siamese crocodiles are Biological Diversity’s 12 exports to protect its specifically targeted and are principles that encourage a dwindling tropical forests. In nearly extinct across participatory and pragmatic October 2001, the ministers Indochina. WCS recommen- approach to managing of industry and trade and dations include renewal of ecosystems to meet the forestry issued a joint decree government commitment to Photo courtesy of Margaret Turton livelihood requirements of putting in place a temporary the Convention on Interna- Spotted-tail quoll in New South people while conserving ban on exports of logs for tional Trade in Endangered Wales biological diversity.# 6 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- ABOUT YOU AND US Editorial ‘Externalities and biodiversity valuation’ # By Glyn Davies O ne of the most important Finally, the outcomes of policy reasons for loss of incentives are often uncertain. Care biodiversity, is that con- is needed in their planning, there- servation and sustainable use of fore, to ensure planned outcomes natural resources is generally not are realised, and Strategic Environ- a viable financial option, and this mental Assessments should be used is because of a combination of to look at the likely environmental market and policy failures. Put and social impacts of planned policy simply, natural resources are un- changes. Thereafter, the real impacts der-valued because no account is of policy change need to be moni- taken of the time it takes to pro- tored. duce the next harvest, nor any costs In this issue, the articles featured involved in managing lands for in the Special Reports section were future harvests, nor the environ- presented during the Third Research mental and social costs associated Conference on the “Economic Valu- with loss of products. Internalising ation of Biodiversity”, which was these costs, so that parties trading sponsored and conducted by the in a particular product pay a ASEAN Regional Centre for larger part of these costs, is a ii. standards, regulations and Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) central element in dealing with the restrictions – these are stan- in June 2002. “externalities” that are driving dard institutional instruments Arguing that valuing biodiversity biodiversity loss. used to set maximum accept- is a key policy interest, the papers A number of approaches have able levels of resource deple- stressed that the economic valua- been taken to address these exter- tion, for example by restrict- tion of biodiversity is a powerful tool nalities, and these can be thought of ing harvest off-takes. for management, and a convinc- in terms of incentive measures to iii. fees and environmental ing argument for conservation es- support conservation and sustain- charges – these can be used pecially when used alongside so- able use of natural resources. First, to recover costs of maintain- cial, scientific and spiritual studies and probably the most important ing or replacing natural re- on biodiversity. Although there are incentive in many areas is to remove sources, and include timber some who insist that putting a high perverse incentives – policies, sub- taxes, fishing licenses, and value on biodiversity would not al- sidies and low commodity prices park entrance fees. ways guarantee its conservation, the which make it profitable to exploit iv. public financing and environ- correct incentives and mechanisms natural resources without concern for mental funds – financial in- to capture the resource values long-term outcomes. centives can be offered to should be put in place. Without such Thereafter policy incentives that those who harvest in ways that incentives, value estimates would can be implemented to contribute reduce natural resource only represent values on paper that directly to improving the manage- losses. would have limited impact on the ment of biodiversity can be divided However, none of these incen- decision-making process or none at into four categories: tives will be effective without well- all. i. trade liberalisation and regulated markets, nor will they Notwithstanding its weaknesses, property rights – which can work without strong political com- the economic approach facilitates encourage greater benefits mitment to ensure that policy incen- comparisons in a world where re- to local stewards of natural tives are appropriate and imple- sources are limited and choices have resources, thereby providing mented. Furthermore, giving values to be made.# an incentive for them to to biodiversity values that are long- Glyn Davies is the Conservation engage in sustainable pro- term and intangible poses many Programme Director of the Zoological duction systems. problems. Society of London. ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 7
- SPECIAL REPORTS An overview of valuation techniques: Advantages and limitations # By Camille Bann Introduction V Box 1. Uses of Economic Valuation and Biodiversity Conservation aluing biodiversity is of key • Raise public and political awareness of the importance of biodiversity. policy interest. Economic val- • Set conservation priorities given a limited budget. ues of non-marketed goods • Facilitate land use decisions. • Guide legal proceedings for determining damages where an agent is held liable for can draw attention to the economic biodiversity loss. importance of biodiversity in a • Limit or ban trade in endangered species. country’s development prospects, • Prevent new invasions. and can provide guidance for imple- • Revise national income accounts. • Design capture mechanisms (e.g., market creation, economic instruments, international menting appropriate conservation transfers). mechanisms (other uses are outlined • Revise investment decisions (e.g., infrastructure development) that might otherwise ignore in Box 1). However, estimating the the impacts on biodiversity. monetary worth of biodiversity is per- Source: OECD, 2002 haps the most challenging area of 1 environmental resource valuation. potential human uses . include: Fundamental to any discussion There are other reasons why it is • Distributional Equity - Distribu- of the value of biodiversity is an difficult to put a monetary estimate tional concerns are rarely in- understanding of what precisely the on biodiversity. There is a lack of corporated into the economic object of value is. It is necessary to consensus on the total number of evaluation framework despite distinguish between biological re- living species (i.e., baseline measure- the fact that they are often of sources and biological diversity. A ments for biodiversity), rate of paramount concern, especially biological resource is a given ex- biodiversity loss, and biodiversity in poor countries. ample of a gene, species or eco- indicators fundamental to the valu- • Discounting and Future Gen- system. Biological diversity refers to ation process (see Box 2). There is eration - Discounting does not the variability of biological resources. also a lack of knowledge of the true satisfactorily deal with signifi- Biodiversity is the ‘variety of life’ value and extent of current and cant environmental costs and whereas biological resources are the potential future uses of biodiversity. benefits occurring in the future manifestation or embodiment of that Criticisms of Economic Evalua- (although these concerns can variety (OECD, 2002). tion and Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) be dealt with by other means). Because diversity valuation re- quires some idea of willingness to Box 2. Biodiversity Indicators and Policy Assessment pay (WTP) for the range of species Measurement of biodiversity is very complex because diversity is multi-dimensional. There are and habitats, it is hard to use the fundamental definitional problems relating to species and ecosystems. For example, discrete cut-off term ‘biodiversity’ as the object of points for determining boundaries between species (Gaston and Spicer, 1998) or ecosystems is valuation. In reality what economic still subject to research and discussion. Even if this issue was resolved, the inventory task is monumental given the staggering number of microorganisms present at any location. The task is studies normally measure is the even more unmanageable at that genetic level. Furthermore, science has only a limited idea of economic value of ‘biological re- the genetic dissimilarity between species. sources’ rather than biodiversity it- Notions of species richness, evenness and distance are the most used expressions of diversity1 . self. Biological resource is a more Clarification of these measures has important implications for conservation policy. Solow et al 1993 anthropocentric term for biota such show that if the objective is to conserve diversity, an understanding of species distance is very important. Solow presents an example using the pairwise distance between cranes and their as forest and components of extinction probabilities. The conservation of the most endangered species does not in fact maximise biodiversity that maintain current or diversity. The reason for this is that the genetic distance between the endangered species and at least one of the ‘safe’ species is small. Minimising the probability of the number of species lost 1 This anthropocentric view of biological is not the same as minimising the value of lost biodiversity. In practice conservation resources resources is much more convenient for are largely allocated to ‘exotic’ species conservation (e.g., giant pandas and tigers) without any economic analysis compared to alternative value paradigms such as real consideration of the diversity issue. This focus might be because the difference between ‘intrinsic values’ (values in themselves biological diversity and biological resources is unrecognised, or because conservation policy responds and, nominally, unrelated to human to the high values attached to scarce species. Nonetheless, if the stated aim is to conserve use). Intrinsic values are relevant to diversity, those policies may not be soundly based. conservation decisions, but they generally cannot be measured (Pearce and Moran, Source: OECD, 2002 1994). 8 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- SPECIAL REPORTS • Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value Box 3. Categories of Valuation Techniques - There are different philo- Approaches Based on Market Values sophical viewpoints on ‘value’. • Observed Market Value and the Related Goods Approach –market prices for CBA is founded on the instru- environmental goods and services can be combined with quantity information to derive mentalist view, whereas it is estimates of value. The related goods approach uses information on the relationship argued that the ‘true’ notion of between a marketed and non-marketed good or service to estimate the value of the non-marketed good (e.g., barter exchange approach, direct substitute approach, indirect biodiversity value is intrinsic. substitute approach). • Relative vs. Absolute Value - • The Productivity Approach – uses market prices to value environmental services in CBA embodies the situations where environmental damage or improvement shows up in changes in the quantity or price of marketed inputs or outputs. economist’s notion that value • Cost-Based Methods – use some estimate of the costs of providing or replacing a is relative, i.e., the value of good or service to approximate its benefit (e.g., opportunity cost, indirect opportunity something is always relative to cost, restoration cost, replacement cost, relocation cost, preventive expenditure). something else. Critics argue Cost-based methods are second best techniques and must be used with caution. that biodiversity has absolute Revealed Preference Approaches - use information about a marketed commodity to infer the value of a related, non-marketed commodity (e.g., travel cost method, hedonic pricing value in itself, and hence it method). cannot be measured relative Stated Preference Approaches - elicit directly, through survey methods, consumers’ to other things. willingness to pay for non-marketed environmental values (e.g. contingent valuation method). • Incremental vs. Total Values - CBA values discrete changes ample, to estimate ‘option values’ Valuation approaches can be in the stock of biodiversity. It for future uses. Also, the baseline broadly categorised according to is argued that CBA might information allows setting of man- market values, revealed preference judge each small loss of agement and research priorities approaches and stated preferences 3 biodiversity as being justified, (Huber et al, 1997). approaches (OECD, 2002) . Valua- while overlooking the fact that tion approaches based on market each small change contributes An Overview of Valuation values rely on the availability of to the risk that the total stock Techniques2 market price and quantity informa- will be lost (Norton, 1988). A range of techniques is avail- tion to derive total values. Revealed Despite these drawbacks there is able for the estimation of biological preference valuation techniques seek considerable scope for at least se- resource values (see Box 3). A com- to determine preferences for the curing minimum values for biologi- prehensive valuation would capture environment from actual, observed cal diversity through the use of the Total Economic Value (TEV) of market based information. Often, approaches focused on the market the resource (i.e., use and non-use when no market price exists for an values of the sustainable uses of values). Different valuation ap- environmental good or service, biodiversity (e.g., ecotourism, and proaches are applicable to the dif- peoples’ preferences for the envi- the collection of medicinal plants and ferent components of TEV. Direct ronment can be ‘revealed’ indirectly other non-timber forest products use values are relatively straightfor- by examining their behaviour in [NTFP]). Measuring these direct use ward to measure, and usually in- markets that are linked to the envi- values of biodiversity conservation is volve the market value of produc- ronment. Some goods and services extremely important since biodiversity tion gains. Since environmental func- are complements to environmental will be more prone to loss when these tions are rarely exchanged in mar- quality, while others are proxies, are not appreciated. Furthermore, kets, measurement of indirect use surrogates or substitutes for it. There- estimates of direct use values pro- values typically entails more com- fore, by examining the prices paid vide an important benchmark for plex techniques such as the change in environment-related markets, other, less easily quantified, uses. in productivity approach, travel cost peoples’ environmental preferences While most of these other uses are method, and hedonic pricing can be uncovered (Pearce and still associated with some particular method. Non-use values can only Moran, 1994). An advantage of current or future use (such as be defined from surveys of people’s these techniques is that they rely on bioprospecting or amenity), the preference about their WTP (e.g., actual choices rather than on the uncertainty associated with valuing Contingent Valuation). Non-use creation of a hypothetical market to these goods and services is often values tend to be important in cer- uncover the value of the environmen- orders of magnitude greater than the tain contexts, notably when the good 2 This paper provides a non-technical uncertainty associated with the in question has few substitutes. Since overview of valuation techniques. For a simple direct (but often untraded) many biological resources are by detailed account on methodologies, see Freeman, 1994; Johansson, 1994. uses. The availability of such baseline definition unique, their non-use value 3 Many authors categorise valuation information is necessary, for ex- is likely to be significant. techniques differently. 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- SPECIAL REPORTS tal good or service in question as Table 1. Observed Market Prices and Related Goods Approach – Advantages and Limitations stated preference approaches do. Advantages Issues / Limitations The correct measure of value is an Relatively simple. Market values tend to reflect actual use and individual’s maximum WTP to pre- hence ignore non-use values. vent environmental damage or High intuitive appeal. Does not capture consumer surplus. realise an environmental benefit Likely to require the undertaking of market surveys and (represented by the area under the direct use surveys (However such surveys are simpler demand curve). Economic values and less costly to conduct than those required by more comprise both the price paid in sophisticated approaches). markets and the consumer surplus Large data requirements may be necessary to estimate that users obtain. Consumer surplus theoretically correct values. indicates the excess of what the consumer would have been willing values should be recorded and or service. By using information to pay over what he or she actually reported. Such information will con- about this relationship and the price had to pay. This concept is particu- tribute to priority setting. of the marketed product, the analyst larly important when estimating the may be able to infer the value of the benefits of environmental goods and Observed Market prices non-marketed product. For ex- services that have a low, or no market Where market prices exist they ample, the direct substitute approach price. In such cases, the entire area can be combined with quantity in- bases the value of a non-marketed under the demand curve represents formation to estimate the value of a good such as fuelwood, on the price the benefit of the good. To estimate resource. The use of market prices of its closest marketed substitute (e.g., economic value, we therefore need is undoubtedly the most straightfor- charcoal) and the rates of exchange to be able to derive the demand ward of the valuation approaches between them. curve. Valuation approaches based and provides a relatively cheap and on market values do not allow us to quick estimate of value. However, Application to Biodiversity do this and so will always underes- few studies report theoretically cor- Many natural resource products timate the true value of the resource. rect estimates due to data constraints. have market prices that can be used Strictly speaking efficient prices in the valuation exercise, for ex- Valuation Approaches should be used, i.e., they should ample, non-timber forest products, The following section provides a account for any distortions such as and genetic material for agricultural brief description of the individual externalities, taxes and subsidies. products and drugs. Empirical stud- valuation approaches. For each tech- Values used should be net of pro- ies demonstrating the values of nique a Table is provided summarising duction costs. They should also be naturally occurring products are its advantages and limitations, and its based on optimal harvesting levels, common (see Bann 1998, Pearce application to biodiversity valuation is and account for seasonal changes and Pearce, 2001 for review). outlined. In reality, decisions on what in production and prices. Market valuation approach to use will depend analysis may also be necessary to The Production Function Approach on the nature of the study plus the understand the likely effects of market The production function approach availability of resources (funds, time expansion, shifts in demand and in- is a common economic technique, and expertise). ternational price fluctuations. which relates output to different lev- els of inputs of the so-called factors Approaches Based Related Goods Approach of production (land, labour, capital, on Market Values The related goods approach raw materials). It is often thought of There are three valuation ap- consists of three similar valuation as the most straightforward way to 4 proaches based on market values: techniques: barter exchange, direct valuing the environment . • Observed market value and substitute, and indirect substitute More formally, the production related goods approach approach. These relatively simple, function for a single output may be • Productivity approach intuitive approaches are often useful given by: • Cost based methods includ- for estimating products in develop- y = F (X, Z) ing replacement cost. ing countries that are largely used Approaches using market prices by rural communities for subsistence 4 Variously called the change in produc- offer the most pragmatic route to purposes or traded informally. These tion approach, the input-output or dose response approach. All involve an the monetisation of environmental approaches are based on the fact attempt to relate the incremental output use values. Therefore, economic that often a non-marketed good or of a marketed good or service to a measurable change in the quality and values such as they exist in market service is related to a marketed good quantity of a natural resource. 10 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- SPECIAL REPORTS where X is a set of inputs (e.g., is clear and can be observed, or Cost-Based Valuation land, capital) and Z is the input of tested empirically; and, markets Cost-based valuation techniques the un-priced environmental re- function well, so that price is a good assess the costs of different measures source. Let us assume that we can indicator of economic value (OECD, that would ensure the maintenance measure output y that has a market 1995). of the benefits provided by the price. If prices of inputs X are not Specifying the physical effect of environmental good or service be- expected to change when supply of a change in environmental quality, ing valued. These cost estimates are the environmental resource (Z) and the resulting impact of the then used as proxies for the non- changes, then the economic value physical effect on the economic market environmental benefit in of the change in the supply of Z is activities can be difficult and data question. Cost-based valuation the value of the production change intensive in practice. These functions approaches include: opportunity associated with the change in Z at may be estimated or derived from cost-based approaches; ap- constant inputs of the other factors existing literature, but ideally expert proaches that measure environmen- 5 (X) (Pearce and Moran, 1994) . scientific studies are required. tal values by examining the costs of For example, assume that an Where environmental change has reproducing the original level of ben- ecological function of a tropical forest a sizeable effect on markets, a more efits (e.g., the replacement, restora- is support for downstream fisheries complex view needs to be taken of tion and relocation cost methods); by ensuring a regular flow of clean the market structure, elasticities, and and, the preventative expenditure ap- water to spawning grounds for fish supply and demand responses. proach, which examines the up front and nurseries for fry. The forest area Consumer and producer behaviour payments made to prevent environ- 6 in the watershed (S) may therefore needs to be introduced into the mental degradation. have a direct influence on the catch analysis as behaviour may alter in A practical difficulty is ensuring of some fish species dependant on response to changes in the environ- that the cost of maintenance will the area, Q, which is independent ment. In addition, the impacts of provide a benefit equivalent to the from the standard inputs of commer- market conditions and regulatory benefit of the original good. A cial fishery, Xi...Xk. Including forest policies affecting production deci- potential cause of overestimation watershed area as a determinant of sions need to be taken into account. occurs if the benefits of maintenance fish catch may therefore ‘capture’ Unless these factors are accounted do not exceed the costs of main- some element of the economic con- for, the production function approach tenance. If this is the case, then the tribution of this ecological support may produce unreliable information. investment is not a profitable use of function (Barbier 1992). economic resources and the cost of Application to Biodiversity Valuation maintenance activities may be Q = F(Xi...Xk, S) The production function ap- larger than the WTP for the original proach has strong intuitive and prac- environmental benefits 7 . Con- The approach is most appropri- tical appeal and has been used versely, if the benefits generated by ate where: the environmental change frequently in developing regions to the maintenance activity exceed that directly causes an increase or de- estimate the indirect functions of of the original environmental ben- crease in the output of a good (or ecosystems. For example, the im- efits, then the costs of maintenance service) which is marketed; the effect pact of deforestation on soil erosion activity may surpass the WTP for the 5 This approach can also be applied to and water production and quality, 6 The preventative expenditure approach is output which is not marketed but where and the impact of the loss of man- also referred to as the ‘defensive an actual market exists for similar expenditure approach‘ ‘mitigation substitutes or goods. grove area on fish productivity. approach’ or ‘avertive behaviour approach’. There are two different Table 2. Production Function Approach – Advantages and Limitations approaches to this type of analysis and only one of them is truly a cost-based Advantages Issues / Limitations valuation technique. If estimates of what people are willing to pay to prevent Strong intuitive and practical Specifying biophysical relationship can be complex and/or damage to the environment or them- appeal, therefore popular with data intensive. selves are elicited through the use of constructed markets, or by the examina- policy/decision makers. tion of past events in similar circum- Market values tend to reflect actual use and hence ignore stances through the use of revealed non-use values. preferences exhibited through actual or Does not capture consumer surplus. surrogate markets, first based estimates of value will be derived. Market prices need to be corrected for market and policy 7 In certain cases, such as estimating the distortions. costs of relocating communities affected by land use changes, satisfying this Where the environmental change has a sizeable impact condition may not be critical. Concerns on the market, a more complex view of market structure over equity (ensuring just compensation) is necessary. may override any economic criteria being placed on the cost of relocation. ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 11
- SPECIAL REPORTS Table 3. Cost Based Valuation – Advantages and Limitations estimate the number of trips visited Advantages Issues / Limitations to a site or sites over some period of time, perhaps a season. Random A practical approach where Considered to be second best techniques as they are resources (time, data, likely to be inaccurate because they use costs as a utility models consider the specific money) are lacking. measure of ‘benefit’. decision of whether to visit a recre- Less data intensive and time Market values tend to reflect actual use and hence ignore ational site, and if so, which one consuming than the more non-use values. (see Freeman, 1994). sophisticated approaches. The TCM is applicable when: Does not capture consumer surplus. the study site is accessible for at original environmental benefits. vantages of using more exact but least part of the time; there is no Further, because they bear no re- costly techniques. direct charge or entry fee for the lation to demand or WTP for en- good or service in question, or vironmental goods and services, Application to Biodiversity Valuation where such charges are very low; cost estimates fail to reflect con- Despite their theoretical shortcom- and, where people spend a sig- sumer surplus (and may also un- ings, such approaches are widely nificant time, or incur other costs, derestimate producer surplus) thus used. The replacement or restora- to travel to the site. tending to underestimate environ- tion cost is, for example, used to The TCM techniques have im- mental values. value various ecosystem services and proved considerably since the ear- The replacement cost method has is implicit in the ‘public trust’ doctrine liest studies were carried out but a recently been used to estimate the in the USA as it relates to certain number of reservations as to its use values of ecosystem services natural resource damage costs. remain. Of particular concern is the (Costanza et al 1997; Pimentel et al large amount of data required, 1997 and Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1996). Revealed Preference Approaches which is expensive to collect and However, the Costanza et al study is Revealed preference methods process. Furthermore difficulties with criticised on theoretical grounds (see include traditional travel cost mod- estimation and data analysis remain. Pearce, 1998). It is argued that the els of recreational use, random util- The method is likely to work best when replacement cost is only valid if three ity models, hedonic models, and applied to the valuation of a single conditions are met (Bockstael et al averting behaviour models. These site, its characteristics and those of [2000]): methods rely on a surrogate market other sites remaining constant. The 1) the human-engineered system that provides a ‘behavioural trail’ to method has limited use for valuing provides functions that are identify the environmental value of anything other than parks and char- equivalent in quality and interest. They may be considered ismatic species that can provoke magnitude to the natural func- ‘true’ valuation approaches in the travel behaviour. The most credible tion; sense that they facilitate estimation applications to date have involved 2) the human-engineered solu- of demand curves and hence con- national parks, recreational sites and tion is the least cost alternative sumer surplus. Generally, these international travel behaviour when way of performing the func- approaches are favoured over stated visiting wildlife parks and reserves tion; and, preference approaches by many (Tobais and Mendelsohn, 1991; 3) the individuals in aggregate economists and policy makers be- Maille and Mendelsohn 1993; would be willing to incur these cause these values are revealed in Hanley and Ruffell 1993). costs if the natural function real, rather than hypothetical, mar- were no longer available. kets. However, they are limited in the Application to Biodiversity sense that they are unable to ac- Where feasible, TCM is impor- These conditions are rarely count for non-use values and have tant when evaluating the demand achieved hence use of replacement large data requirements. for recreational facilities. The infor- costs is rarely accurate. mation derived from a TCM study Due to the inaccuracies inherent Travel Cost Method can be used to: set appropriate en- in cost-based valuation approaches, With the travel cost method trance fees to national parks and they are generally regarded as (TCM), it is assumed that travel costs reserve areas; allocate national rec- second best valuation techniques. to a site can be regarded as a proxy reation and conservation budgets However, they can be extremely for the value of the non-market asset. between different sites; and inform useful when there are limitations on The TCM is commonly applied to land use decisions – for example the time and resources for detailed recreational areas and national whether it is worth preserving a site research or when data sets are so parks. Two perspectives are possible. for recreational use or a rival land questionable as to reduce the ad- Simple travel cost models attempt to use. 12 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- SPECIAL REPORTS Table 4. Travel Cost Method – Advantages and Limitations Application to Biodiversity Valuation Advantages Issues / Limitations The application of HPM to biodiversity is extremely limited. Few Provides estimate of demand General curve therefore possible to The method has limited use for valuing anything other biodiversity-related attributes are estimate consumer surplus. than parks and charismatic species that can provoke likely to show up systematically in travel behaviour. the complementary market prices - Where feasible, can provide estimates of value of parks and Does not account for non-users, off-site benefits and non- the WTP for housing in most cases, recreational facilities. use values. and even when they do, accurate Theoretical data to describe them is rarely avail- Time Costs – determining the value to be attached to able to undertake robust analysis. travel time. Studies relating to the value of Dealing with multi-purpose visits. forestry, shoreline and landscape How to deal with substitute sites. have relied on these attributes being Treatment of utility or dis-utility from travelling. significant in local property markets (e.g., Garrod and Willis 1992). Truncation or sample selection bias in dealing with site visitors, and neglecting non-visitors. A closely related application is Difficulties with the estimation and data analysis techniques. the valuation of plant genetic re- sources for agriculture – e.g., plant Practical breeding and crop improvement Survey based and large amounts of data required, (Evenson 1990; Gollin and Evenson therefore expensive and time consuming. 1998). The steps for conducting this Requires trained interviewers to carry out survey work and statisticians and/or econometricians to carry out research are similar to its analogue analysis. in the housing sector although the data requirements are just as oner- Table 5. Hedonic Pricing – Advantages and Limitations ous. In this context the ‘external’ Advantages Issues / Limitations value of interest is a naturally occur- The hedonic approach is It relies on the assumption of a freely functioning and efficient ring material germplasm or genetic founded upon a sound property market. trait, which is an attribute of an economic theory base and is original crop landrace prior to crop Huge data requirements. capable of producing valid estimates of economic The approach only reflects impacts to the extent that individuals improvement. The original raw benefits. are aware of them. material or trait is ultimately one A number of statistical problems may hinder its feasibility. attribute of a final product. If the It is essentially an ex post valuation and does not contribution of that trait can be iso- capture non-use value. lated from the other production factors, then its resource value can Hedonic Pricing Method other things constant. In other words, be estimated. The steps necessary The Hedonic Price Method the value is revealed from within the for undertaking such an analysis are (HPM) is another revealed value value of the property. The method summarised in Box 4. technique that relies on market prices is data demanding and there are Clearly this methodology has (typically property prices or wages) few applications available in the important implications for the is- to embody the value of the envi- published literature. sues of benefit sharing and intel- ronmental attribute (or job risk) of interest. The property value ap- Box 4. Estimating the Contribution of germplasm of original landraces to Rice Productivity proach, for example, is based on Gollin and Evenson (1998) show how the HPM can be applied to the analysis of the the assumption that the value of land productivity of alternative categories of rice germplasm in India. The key steps are: is related to the stream of benefits • For a crop – e.g., rice, divide gains in output into gains from yield and gains from increased area under cultivation. derived from it. The value of a • Disaggregate rice yield gains into gains attributable to varietal improvement, other house, for example, is affected by technological advances and other sources of change. many variables including size, con- • Assume varietal improvement is dependent on stocks of advanced crossing material from struction, location and the quality different sources and other research resources. of the environment (air quality and • Stocks of advanced material depend on the existence of traditional landraces and wild noise pollution). With sufficient data species. on property values, it is in theory • Link productivity to original germplasm, its origins and ownership. possible to tease out the value of • Note finally that the data requirements are onerous. In short detailed information is required on the productivity of all factor inputs in all the above stages. the environmental feature holding ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 13
- SPECIAL REPORTS lectual property rights. In theory, Table 6. Stated Preferences – Advantages and Limitations the methodology offers the poten- Advantages Issues / Limitations tial for the identification of key germplasm contributions to crop An important feature of SP SP methods require carefully designed survey and methods is that they can sampling procedures and the employment of sophisticated development by countries and help reveal values that are data analysis (econometric modelling). Obtaining reliable communities within countries. It can not revealed using other information therefore requires a substantial investment of therefore serve as a basis for es- methods. In particular SP time and resources, which makes SP techniques very can uncover non-use values. expensive. timating returns to indigenous com- munities as part of a benefit shar- ing agreement. In practice, data to ensure that questionnaires mimic monetary values. Arguably, this can sources will prevent identification the relevant features of the market reduce protest votes since people of inputs for many crops. place, and that potential biases in may find it easier to rank or rate This approach can also help to responses are controlled. alternatives without having to directly determine the value added at each The SP techniques become nec- think in money terms. However this production stage by informal and essary when the WTP information that depends on the amount of back- formal breeding inputs that have led is needed cannot be inferred from ground information provided in what the crop to its current status. This is markets. They are then extremely is already (for the respondent) a particularly important information for applicable to the valuation of pub- cognitively burdensome task. At the CGIAR8 group when informa- lic goods for which no markets exist. present there is no strong reason to tion on the returns to publicly funded CVM is technically applicable to all choose one of these technique in research is at issue. circumstances and is the only prac- preference to the other. tical method for uncovering existence Stated Preference Approaches value (e.g., preservation of rare Application to Biodiversity Stated preference techniques (SP) species, biodiversity for its own sake) Contingent valuation has been refer here to any questionnaire- that generally does not pass through used extensively in the valuation of based technique that seeks to dis- markets and do not have substitutes biological resources including rare cover individuals’ preferences. The or complements that pass through and endangered species, habitats 11 most well-known approach under this markets. and landscapes. category is Contingent Valuation Choice Modelling involves a rat- CVM is likely to be most reliable 9 Method (CVM) although Choice ing or ranking of options each of for valuing environmental gains, Modelling (CM) is becoming in- which contains a varying set of particularly when familiar goods are 10 creasingly popular . characteristics (e.g., a forest can be considered, such as local recre- The CVM uses survey techniques described in terms of species diver- ational amenities. The most reliable to ask people directly what their sity, age structure and recreational studies (i.e. those that have passed environmental preferences are. It is facilities), including a money price the most stringent validity tests and therefore a form of market research, or cost. Respondents are not asked avoided severe ‘embedding’ where the ‘product’ in question is a any WTP questions. Rather the will- whereby values are not sensitive to change in environment quality. A ingness to pay is inferred from the the quantity of the good being of- hypothetical market is constructed stated choices (Louviere et al, 2000), fered) are those valuing high profile and consumers are asked what they CM differs from CVM in that it species or elements that are familiar would be WTP for a hypothetical solicits rankings or ratings rather than to respondents. In other cases, the environmental improvement or to need to provide information to elicit prevent a deterioration, or what they 8 reliable values is a limit both to CV Consultative Group on International would be willing to accept (WTA) in Agricultural Research. and other attribute-based choice compensation to tolerate a loss. A 9 See OECD, 1995; Bann, 1998; Mitchell models. and Carson, 1989 for more details on hypothetical market is taken to in- methodology There is a small body of studies clude not just the good itself (an 10 Choice modelling approaches include - testing the applicability of CM to improved view, better water quality, choice experiments, contingent ranking, biological resources. It is argued contingent rating and paired compari- etc), but also the institutional context sons. that the constrained attribute de- in which it would be provided, and 11 Other valuation techniques are not sign requirement makes CM even the way in which it would be financed. aimed at capturing non-use values. more limiting than CVM. Moreover, While it may be possible to infer Answers to questionnaires are in- estimates of existence values from the selection and representation of market behaviour - such as donations tended to simulate the behaviour of to philanthropic pursuits - it is almost these attributes and their levels individuals in the market place. A impossible to separate out use and simply adds to the design prob- existence values revealed in such great deal of care needs to be taken markets. lems already associated with hy- 14 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- SPECIAL REPORTS Table 7. Benefit Transfer – Advantages and Limitations to transfer an average WTP estimate from one study site, or to transfer a Advantages Issues / Limitations WTP function from the study and Avoids the cost/time of Reliability? How can the transferred values be validated? apply it to the policy site, or to trans- engaging in ‘primary studies’ fer WTP estimates from meta-analy- The literature that tests for validity of benefits transfer is a 12 long way from supporting such procedures. Therefore, at sis. present there appears to be no substitute for high quality If values are transferred ‘unad- original studies. justed’ the credibility of the policy site estimates are questionable. pothetical surveys. A strong advan- cluded. This margin of error may be Possible differences that should be tage of the CM over CVM is that acceptable for some project and accounted for include: differences in it can reveal something about the policy applications, and uncertainty baseline conditions and/or the sum of the parts of a resource rather of the final results can be dealt with magnitude of the economic impact than the total value. In many cir- through sensitivity analysis. (i.e., change from baseline), varia- cumstances, the policy question to Benefits transfer is most appro- tions in study methodology, research- be answered by a valuation study priate when: funds, time, or person- ers judgement in the selection of concerns the improvement of a nel are insufficient to undertake a sample size, socio-economic char- specific attribute. satisfactory new study; the study site acteristics of the relevant population, is similar to the policy site; the issues determinants of WTP differences in , Benefits Transfer (e.g., proposed policy change, or market conditions applying to the A final valuation technique is nature of the project) are similar in sites (e.g. variations in the availabil- known as benefits transfer, which the two cases; and, the original ity of substitutes), and econometric could be based on any of the valu- valuation procedures are theoreti- specifications.# ation techniques described above. cally sound (OECD, 1995). These 12 Benefits transfer (BT) involves ‘trans- ‘borrowed’ unit values can repre- Meta-analysis explains the variations in WTP taken from a number of studies. ferring’ economic benefit estimates sent ‘order of magnitude’ estimates This should enable better transfer of values since we can find out what WTP from a site where a study has al- for the environmental goods and depends on. In the meta-analysis case, ready been done (the ‘study site’) to services of interest. However, primary whole functions, based on the collected studies, are transferred rather than the site of policy interest (the ‘policy data collection and analysis may be average values. site’). If BT is a valid procedure, then unavoidable for large projects, the need for ‘primary’ studies is projects with potentially large (and Camille Bann is a consultant on environmental economics based at greatly reduced. However, the ‘in- irreversible) consequences, or for London, United Kingdom, terim’ consensus, based on ongoing particularly complicated or politically email: CABann@aol.com research, appears to be that BT is sensitive projects. References unreliable (Brower, 1988; Bateman The benefits value could have et al, 1999a). Results tend to differ been measured using any one of Bann, C. 1998. ‘An Economic Analysis of Tropical Forest Land Use by up to 75% if outliers are excluded, the techniques summarised in Box Option: A Manual for Researchers’, and by up to 450% if they are in- 3. In benefits transfer, it is possible The Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA), April, 1998. Singapore. Barbier, E. 1992. ‘Valuing Environ- mental Functions: Tropical Wetlands’. LEEC Discussion Paper 92-04. London Environmental Economic Centre / IIED. Bateman, I., Nishikawa, N and R Brouwer, 1999. ‘Benefits Transfer in Theory and Practice: A Review’, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, mimeo. Bockstael, N. Freeman, M., Kopp, R., Portney, P Smith, V. 2000. ‘On . Measuring Economic Values for Nature’. Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 1384-1389. Brouwer, R and Spannincks, F. 1999. ‘The Validity of Environmental Benefits Transfer: Further Empirical ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 15
- SPECIAL REPORTS Testing’. Environmental and Resource Hanley, N. D. and R.J. Ruffell, Policy Makers’. OECD, Paris. Economics, 14, 95-117. (1993). ‘The Contingent Valuation of Forest Characteristics: Two Experi- Pearce, D.W., and Moran, D. 1994. Costanza, R., R. D’Arge, R de ‘The Economic Value of Biodiversity’. ments’. Journal of Agricultural Econom- Groot, S. Farber, M. Grasso, B. In Association with The Biodiversity ics 44 pp218-229. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, Programme of IUCN. Earthscan R. O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R. Raskin, P . Huber, R., Ruitenbeek, J. and Publications Ltd, London. Sutton and M van den Belt. 1997. Putterman, D. 1997. ‘Marine ‘The Value of the World’s Ecosystem Biodiversity Valuation: Internal Research Pearce. D.W. and Pearce, G.T. Services and Natural Capital’, Nature, Note Supplementing Interim Report’ 2001. ‘The Value of Forest 387, May 15 1997, 253-260. The World Bank Research Committee Ecosystems: A Report to the Project No. 681-04, Washington. Secretariat Convention of Biological Ehrlich P and A. Ehrlich, 1996. ‘A ., Diversity’. University College Betrayal of Science and Reason’. Johansson, P 1994. ‘The Economic . London. Island Press, Washington D.C. 1996. Theory and Measurement of Environ- mental Benefits’. Cambridge University Pearce, D.W. 1988. ‘Auditing the Evenson R.E., 1990. ‘Genetic Press. Earth’. Environment, 23, 25-28. Resources: Measuring Economic Value’. In: Vincent, J., Crawford, E. and Hoehn Louviere, J., Hensher, D and Swit, Pimentel, D., C. Wilson, C. (eds.) Valuing Environmental Benefits in J. 2000. ‘Stated Choice Methods: McCullum, C. Huang, P Dwen,. . Developing Countries, Michigan State Analysis and Application’. Cambridge: J. Flack, Q. Tran, T.B. Cliff University, East Lansing. Cambridge University Press. Saltman, (1997). ‘Economic and Maille, P and R. Mendelsohn Environmental Benefits of Biodiversity’. Freeman, A.M. 1994. ‘The Measure- BioScience 47(11):747-757. ment of Environmental and Resource (1993) ‘Valuing Ecotourism in Mada- Values. Theory and Methods’. gascar’. Journal of Environmental Purvis, A and A. Hector, 2000. Resources for the Future, Washington Management, 38, 213-218. ‘Getting the Measure of Biodiversity’. DC. Mitchell, R. and Carson, R. 1989. Nature, 405, 212-219. Garrod, G. and K. Willis, 1992. ‘Using Surveys to value Public Goods: Solow, A., S. Polasky and J. ‘The Environmental Economic Impact of The Contingent Valuation Method’. Broadus, 1993. ‘On the Measurement Woodland: a Two Stage Hedonic Price Resources for the Future. Washington of Biological Diversity’. Journal of Model of the Amenity Value of Forestry DC. Environmental Economics and Manage- in Britain’, Applied Economics 24. OECD, 1995. ‘The Economic Appraisal ment, 24, 60-68. 715-28. of Environmental Projects and Policies; Tobais, D and Mendelsohn, R. Gaston, K. and J. Spicer, 1998, A Practical Guide’. 1991. ‘Valuing Ecotourism in a Tropical ‘Biodiversity: An Introduction’. Oxford: OECD, 2002. ‘Handbook of Rain Forest Reserve’, Ambio, 20(2), Blackwell Science. Biodiversity Valuation: A Guide for April, 9102. Looking for a key document on biodiversity-related training? ARCBC Training Resource Database Environmental trainers, managers, researchers, policy makers, and other interested individuals and organisations can now access the Training Resources Database (TRD) developed by the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC). The Training Resources Database is a web-based repository of training materials such as manuals, guidebooks, and visual aids. It aims to provide a widely recognized and consulted source of training advice and information on biodiversity conservation mostly in the ASEAN region. Materials have been sourced from a variety of organisations and experts, primarily from the ASEAN region, conducting significant work in environmental protection all over the world. The database provides a search engine that allows users to look for specific material by entering keyword(s), its “title” or “author”. Users can also narrow down their search by selecting geographic coverage, subject and taxonomic area through dropdown menus. Descriptions, abstracts and other bibliographic information can be viewed by looking at the Full Detail Display. Links for ordering, requesting or downloading copies of these materials are also provided. To access the database, visit ARCBC’s website at http://www.arcbc.org.ph. For comments and suggestions, contact: webmaster@arcbc.org.ph 16 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- SPECIAL REPORTS Economic valuation of the Leuser Ecosystem in Sumatra # By Pieter van Beukering, Herman Cesar and Marco Janssen D espite its formally protected use of economic techniques for the cooking. The classic example of status, the Leuser Ecosystem appraisal of projects and policies. an indirect use value as it relates is under severe threat of A method central to this effort is to rainforest ecosystems is the water deforestation due to the economic ‘economic valuation’. In this study, retention function provided by for- crisis in Indonesia. Not only is this economic valuation is used as the ests to support downstream agri- believed to have severe ecologi- main analytical tool to compare cultural areas. Non-use values, cal consequences, but the local the advantages and disadvantages among others, refers to an economy is also expected to be of certain scenarios in the Leuser individual’s willingness to pay structurally damaged. The decline Ecosystem. Nowadays, most (WTP) to secure the continued ex- of several crucial ecological func- economists agree that the value of istence of, for instance, an endan- tions of the rainforest may have natural resources depends not only gered wildlife species, without ever serious consequences for numer- on the market prices of its direct actually seeing it in the wild (a ous economic activities in and uses, but also on all other func- ‘use’). The classic example here is around the Leuser Ecosystem. tions of the natural resources that the contributions people make to Mainly, this study aims to determine generate value in its broadest actions that aim to preserve char- the Total Economic Value (TEV) of sense. This is reflected in the con- ismatic mega-fauna such as the the Leuser Ecosystem and evaluate cept of the so-called TEV. tiger or the panda. If an individual the consequences of deforestation In determining the TEV of a is willing to pay $400 for preserv- 1 for its main stakeholders. tropical rainforest, a distinction is ing biodiversity in some rainforest often made between direct use area without any present or future What is economic valuation? values, indirect use values and use in mind (source of food, lei- The road towards sustainable non-use values. The first relates to sure hunting, wildlife viewing, etc.), development involves better inte- the values derived from direct use then this is his or her non-use value. gration of environmental consid- or interaction with a rainforest’s re- A common way to determine erations into economic decision- sources and services; the second use and non-use values is to pur- making, in particular through the stems from the indirect support and sue the sequence of underlying protection provided to economic processes, starting with the cause 1 The lack of reliable data in combination activity and property by the of an impact, on to the physical with the need for quantification and rainforests’ natural functions, or impact and ending with the social monetisation of the main effects forced us to adopt rather compromising regulatory ‘environmental’ services. and economic effects. The ap- assumptions. Therefore, these results should be considered as indicative, but A typical example of a direct use proach in this study proceeds in a not as authoritative if it comes to actual value of rainforest ecosystems is the series of methodological steps. investment decisions in the Leuser Ecosystem. provision of wood for housing or Figure 1 provides an example of Reduced pest Increase use Increase production control fertilizer and costs (in US$) and pollination pesticides (in kg) Reduction in water: floods and drought Change in Increase in crop Decrease in crop Economic Value of Deforestation damage (in kg) yield (in US$) Agriculture (in US$) Increased erosion Reduction of Increase in crop Increase in crop forest cover production (in kg) yield (in US$) Impact on ecological Physical impact of Socio-economic effects Overall impact of Socio- function and service change in fucntions of physical interest economic effects Figure 1. Overall approach applied to the agricultural sector ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 17
- SPECIAL REPORTS how the economic value derived from the Leuser Ecosystem by the Net Annual Gains agricultural sector is calculated. 1,000 First, ecological consequences are 900 estimated in terms of, for example, Conservation 800 changes in water retention, erosion, 700 and pest control. Next, these (in million US$) changes in the ecological services 600 are translated into the physical 500 impact for the agricultural sector. 400 Deforestation For example, the reduction of 300 humus availability due to erosion 200 may cause a decline in the overall 100 agricultural output. Also, the re- duced natural pest-control by birds 0 and animals may cause an in- 2000 2010 2020 2030 creased need for fertiliser and Figure 2. Net gains over time of Leuser National Park for the two scenarios. pesticides. Subsequently, these changes in the physical perfor- Figure 2, which highlights the TEV The accumulated TEV at a zero dis- mance of the agricultural sector in the two scenarios over time. In count rate of a deforested Leuser may cause a decline in the crop the deforestation scenario, ample (US$ 16.9 billion) and of a con- yield as well as an increase in the revenues are generated in the first served Leuser (US$ 22.3 billion) costs of production. This in turn can seven years. After the year 2006, differs in US$ 5.4 billion. This be translated into a change in the revenues decline. The conservation amount can be considered as the economic value of the Leuser Eco- scenario shows a steady increase benefit of conservation (or the costs system for the agricultural sector. in annual benefits throughout the of deforestation). Economic valuation has been 30-year period. By the year 2030, applied to evaluate the TEV of the the annual benefits in the conser- What is the value of the Leuser Ecosystem under two pos- vation scenario outweigh those of Leuser Ecosystem composed of? sible future scenarios: (1) the ‘con- the deforestation scenario by a The TEV is composed of numer- servation’ scenario, implying that factor of 2. ous categories. These categories protection of the rainforest is strictly By aggregating the annual are shown in the first two columns enforced and thus logging will be gains over the 30-year period, the of Table 1 for the two scenarios. excluded as an economic activity; overall TEV has been determined. The main contributors to the TEV and (2) the ‘deforestation’ sce- nario, implying a continuation of Table 1. Distribution of TEV among goods and services provided by the Leuser Ecosystem the current trend of clear cutting. over the period 2000-2030. The current level and the change Economic Economic Net Benefits of of a large number of benefits have Value of Value of deforestation conservation conservation been determined. These benefits (in million US$) (in million US$) (in million US$) (proportion) include: water supply; fisheries; Water supply 1,601 3,730 2,129 25% flood and drought prevention; Fishery 1,351 1,404 53 1% agriculture and plantations; hydro- Flood prevention 3,269 5,174 1,905 22% electricity; tourism; biodiversity; Hydro-electricity 1,000 1,643 644 8% carbon sequestration; fire preven- Tourism 350 1,645 1,294 15% tion; non-timber forest products; Biodiversity 150 1,484 1,334 16% and timber. Sequestration 0 682 682 8% Fire prevention 400 762 362 4% What is the TEV Non-timber forest products 100 241 141 2% of the Leuser Ecosystem? Net-benefits of conservation 8,544 100% Deforestation may be consid- Agriculture 7,003 5,535 -1,468 47% ered an easy way to generate Timber 1,651 0 -1,651 53% fast cash. In the long term, how- Net-costs of conservation -3,119 100% ever, the negative consequences will dominate. This is shown in Total Economic Value 16,875 22,299 5,424 18 APRIL-JUNE 2002
- SPECIAL REPORTS distribution of the economic value Net Benefit of Conservation among the stakeholders is pre- 2,500 sented in Table 2. Contrary to 2,000 popular belief, the local commu- nity is at present by far the main 1,500 beneficiary of the Leuser Ecosys- 1,000 tem. In the conservation scenario, (in million US$) 500 they receive 57% of the benefits. 0 These benefits mainly result from the support of water supply, pre- 500 vention of floods, tourism, fisher- 1,000 ies and agriculture. Similarly, the 1,500 local government is a major ben- eficiary of the Leuser Ecosystem. 2,000 Compared to the distribution in Flood Prevention Water Supply Tourism Sequestration Hydro-electricity Fire prevention NTF products Fishery Agriculture Timber Biodiversity the deforestation scenario, only the plantation and logging indus- try sees its economic value derived from the Leuser Ecosystem declin- Figure 3. Net Benefits over time of Leuser National Park for the two scenarios distributed ing as a result of conservation. This over the various categories. is shown in the last column of Table 2. are water supply, flood prevention, value of the Leuser Ecosystem, it is The net benefits shown in the tourism and agriculture. Not sur- important to be aware of the dis- last column of Table 2 are the sum prisingly, timber revenues play an tribution of the TEV of deforesta- of benefits and costs (see Table important role in the deforestation tion and conservation among the 3). For example, by conserving the scenario. different stakeholders. Five groups Leuser Ecosystem, the local popu- Figure 3 looks at the net ben- of stakeholders have been identi- lation will gain benefits in the form efits in more detail. Except for tim- fied in this study: (1) local commu- of prevented flood damage and ber and agriculture, the value of nities; (2) local government; (3) sufficient water supply but at the all benefits is higher in a scenario elite logging and plantation indus- same time they will experience the of conservation. Therefore, these try; (4) national government; and (opportunity) costs of not being categories are presented as ben- (5) international community. The able to collect the timber or clear efits of conservation while timber and agriculture are presented as Table 2. Distribution of the TEV among stakeholders over the period 2000-2030 the (opportunity) costs of conser- (in million US$) vation. The third column of Table TEV Conservation TEV Deforestation Net Benefits 1 also shows this difference be- Local community 12,750 57% 8,923 53% 3,827 tween the TEV of conservation and Local government 4,168 19% 3,065 18% 1,104 deforestation. The total aggre- Elite industry 2,086 9% 3,093 18% -1,007 gated benefits amount to US$ 8.5 National government 1,192 5% 910 5% 282 billion and the costs of conserva- tion, US$ 3.1 billion. The main International community 2,102 9% 884 5% 1,218 categories that gain from conser- Total 22,298 16,875 5,425 vation are water supply, flood prevention, tourism and Table 3. Distribution of the costs and benefits among stakeholders over the period 2000-2030 (in million US$) biodiversity. At the cost side of con- Benefits of Conservation Costs of Conservation Net Benefits servation, timber and agriculture are approximately of the same size. Local community 4,882 57% 143 5% 3,827 On balance, the local economy Local government 1,571 18% 174 6% 1,104 gains US$5.4 billion from conser- Elite industry 0 0% 2,602 83% -1,007 vation over a 30-year period. National government 592 7% 200 6% 282 International community 1,498 18% 0 0% 1,218 Who wins and who loses? Total 8,544 3,119 5,425 Besides the overall economic ASEAN BIODIVERSITY 19
- SPECIAL REPORTS the land for additional agriculture. bridges, houses). Therefore, the US$ 8.5 billion while defor- For the local communities, how- TEV derived from the Leuser Eco- estation generates US$ 3.1 ever, conservation results in a system is also likely to vary among billion of revenues in the positive net benefit of US$3.8 the regencies. coming 30 years; billion. Therefore, local communi- Figure 4 presents the distribu- • Conservation spreads the ties gain 57% of the benefits of tion of the overall TEV of the Leuser benefits of Leuser equally conservation. If logging takes place Ecosystem across the 11 regencies. among the Kabupaten and in the forest, the plantation and Among others, the shares depend thus prevents further conflict, logging industry receives 83% of on the size of the economy and the while deforestation widens the gains. In conclusion, defores- dependency on the Leuser Ecosys- the income gap between the tation harms the majority of the tem. All the regencies are shown to Kabupaten and may be an population (i.e. local communities) benefit from the conservation of additional source of discord. at the cost of the welfare of the rich the Leuser Ecosystem. Aceh Singkil This dependency may form minority (i.e. plantation and log- and Aceh Timur take the smallest a strong incentive for the re- ging industry). The opposite is true part of the pie, mainly due to the gencies to develop and en- for conservation. small size of their economies. In force a common plan; contrast, Langkat and Deli • Conservation promotes so- How is the value of the Leuser Sardang generate high TEV from cial and economic equity be- Ecosystem geographically the Leuser Ecosystem. The regen- cause it mainly supports the distributed? cies in North Sumatra are least poor majority of society while Each regency that forms part of affected by the negative impacts deforestation widens the gap the Leuser Ecosystem has very dif- of deforestation. between the rich and the poor. ferent characteristics. Geographi- The above results should be cally, they vary in the structure of What are the main lessons of considered as tentative outcomes the land (e.g. mountainous, low- economic valuation of the of the economic valuation in the land), the type of land use (pri- Leuser Ecosystem? context of the management of the mary forest, secondary forest), and Economic valuation has proved Leuser Ecosystem. The work in the precipitation (amount and intensity to be a strong and useful tool in field of economic valuation of the of rain fall). Economically and so- analysing welfare changes for the Leuser Ecosystem goes on. Meth- cially, differences may be in terms different scenarios in the Leuser ods will be improved and converted of population characteristics (size, Ecosystem. Several lessons can be to more user-friendly software to density, income), economic struc- learned from the analysis: encourage application of eco- ture (industry, agriculture, public • Conservation prevents dam- nomic valuation by local experts. sector), and infrastructure (roads, age and loss of income of As data collection continues, the uncertainties surrounding the analy- sis decline. Also the spatial appli- Total Economic Value cation of economic valuation by 3,500 linking with methods of Geo- graphic Information Systems (GIS) 3,000 will be investigated. Finally, 2,500 additional scenarios will be simu- Conservation lated. For example, by focusing on (in million US$) Deforestation 2,000 the cost-benefit conditions of ‘projects’ rather than the cost-ben- 1,500 efit situation of the Leuser Ecosys- 1,000 tem ‘as a whole’, the concept of economic valuation can be used 500 more effectively as a communica- tive tool.# 0 Aceh Tenggara Aceh Singkil Diari Deli Serdang Aceh Utara Aceh Tengah Aceh Barat Aceh Selatan Aceh Timur Langkat Karo Pieter van Beukering is connected with the Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), Vrije Universiteit, Boelelaan 1115, 1018 VR Amsterdam, Figure 4. Distribution of the TEV of Leuser Ecosystem among the regencies over the period the Netherlands; email 2000-2030. beukering@ivm.vu.nl 20 APRIL-JUNE 2002
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