The Oxford Companion to Philosophy

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The Oxford Companion to Philosophy
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The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Second Edition Edited by Ted Honderich 3
3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With ofﬁces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan South Korea Poland Portugal Singapore Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 1995, 2005 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First edition 1995 New edition 2005 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Oxford companion to philosophy / edited by Ted Honderich. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Philosophy—Encyclopedias. I. Honderich, Ted. B51.094 1995 100—dc20 94–36914 ISBN 0–19–926479–1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typeset in Dante by Jayvee, Trivandrum, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn, Norfolk
To Bee, Ingrid, John, Kiaran, and Rina, with love
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Preface The brave, large aim of this book has been to bring philosophy together between two covers better than ever before. That is not a job for one man, or one woman, or a few, or a team, although it is tried often enough. So 249 of us joined forces joined forces ten years ago for the ﬁrst edition. We have now been reinforced by forty-two more contributors for this second edition. To the 1,932 entries in the ﬁrst edition, about 300 more have been added. Also, many of the entries in the ﬁrst edition have been considerably lengthened and revised. Many others have been updated. The list of contemporary philosophers in the ﬁrst edition has been adjusted in order to reﬂect what McTaggart denied, that time is real. The philosophy brought together includes, ﬁrst of all, the work of the great philosophers. As that term is commonly used, there are perhaps twenty of them. By anyone’s reckoning, this pantheon of philosophy includes Plato, Aris- totle, Aquinas, Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, the blessed Hume, Kant, Hegel, and Nietzsche. These, together with others who stand a bit less solidly in the pantheon, are the subjects of long essays in this book. Philosophy as this book conceives it, secondly, includes all of its history in the English language, a history mainly of British and American thinkers. In this his- tory there are many ﬁgures not so monumental as Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Among them, if they are not admitted to the pantheon, are John Stuart Mill, Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, and, if an Austrian can be counted in this particular history, and should be, Ludwig Wittgenstein. They also include Jonathan Edwards, Thomas Reid, William James, and F. H. Bradley. Thirdly, if the book cannot include all of the histories of philosophy in lan- guages other than English, it does attend to them. It attends to more than the great leaders of the philosophies in these languages. Thus Descartes is joined by such of his countrymen and countrywomen as Simone de Beauvoir, Henri Bergson, and Auguste Comte. Kant and Hegel are joined by J. G. Fichte, Jürgen Habermas, Karl Jaspers, and others. There are also general entries on each of the national philosophies, from Australian to Croatian to Japanese to Russian. A fourth part of the book, not an insigniﬁcant one, consists in about 150 entries on contemporary philosophers, the largest groups being American and British. It would have been an omission to leave out contemporaries, and faint-hearted. Philosophy thrives. Its past must not be allowed to exclude its present. It is true, too, that one of these contemporaries may one day stand in the pantheon.
viii Preface What has now been said of four subject-matters within philosophy as the book conceives it can be said differently. These subject-matters can be regarded less in terms of individual thinkers and more in terms of ideas, arguments, the- ories, doctrines, world-views, schools, movements, and traditions. This con- tributes to another characterization of the book, more complete and at least as enlightening, perhaps more enlightening. In particular, it brings out more of the great extent to which the book is about contemporary philosophy rather than the subject’s history. There are perhaps a dozen established parts of philosophy: epistemology, metaphysics, moral philosophy, political philosophy, philosophical logic, logic, the philosophy of mind, aesthetics, and so on. In the case of each of these, the book contains a long essay on its history and another on its problems as they now are, by contributors not at all new to them. In the case of each of these established parts of philosophy, more light is shed by very many additional entries—for a start, by the aforementioned entries on the great philosophers, on their lesser companions in English-language history and other-language histories, and on contemporaries now carrying on the struggle. In the case of each of the established parts of philosophy, there are also very many subordinate entries not about individual philosophers. They are quite as important and perhaps take up more of the book. They range from shorter essays down to deﬁnitions. To glance at subordinate entries just in the philoso- phy of mind, the two long essays go with such shorter entries as actions, animal- ism in personal identity, anomalous monism, body, Brentano, bundle theory of the self, cognitive architecture, cognitive science, and determinism, double-mindedness, dual- ism, and duck-rabbit. That is but a very small start on the philosophy of mind. I have now said something of the philosophy which it is the aim of the 2,230 entries of this book to bring into clear view. But whose clear view? The book is for all those who want authoritative enlightenment, judgement by good judges. Thus it is directed partly to general readers for whom philosophy has a fascination greater than, or at least as great as, any other part of our intellectual and cultural existence, and who want accounts of it that they can trust. The book is also directed to those who study and practise the subject, and are scrupulous about their guides. If it did not also have the second aim, it could not have the ﬁrst. No accounts of a subject can be authoritative for the general reader if they do not also attract and aim to survive the scrutiny of its experts. If that is one description of the two classes of intended readers of this book, there is another quite as important. There are different ways of reading. The general readers and the experts can be taken together and then divided into two other classes of readers. The ﬁrst class has in it readers who are on the job, the second those who are not. Not even your most conscientious postgraduate, or your academic of truly careerist inclination, or your zealous autodidact, is always attending to duty. Reading is not always work. Fortunately, it is more often not work. It is not done to get answers to pre-existing questions, to pass exams or write essays, to get promoted to full Professor. It is not done out of a stern determination to become informed, to pursue truth. To read is often to browse, dally, and meander. It is to satisfy curiosity, or a curiosity owed just to a page that falls open. It is to be intrigued by the sight of afﬁrming the consequent,
Preface ix agglomeration, American philosophy today, arthritis in the thigh, Baudrillard, beati- tude’s kiss, closure, feminist philosophy of science, quantum logic, slime, slingshot argu- ments, tarot, tarwater, Thrasymachus, vague objects, or the new Wittgenstein. A Companion, then, in what there is excuse to call the correct sense of that sometimes abused word, is not only a book for diligent readers, to be studied and perhaps laboured over. It is not only a complete reference book. It is more amiable than that. It diverts. It suits a Sunday morning. Hence, not all that is in it was chosen by the high principle of nose to the grindstone. There are entries in it, as already noticed, that are owed to their intrinsic interest rather than their proven place in a sterner editor’s list of headwords. Only three things remain to be said in this Preface, the ﬁrst of them about the nature of philosophy and hence of the book. Isaiah Berlin, one of the contribu- tors, once characterized philosophy not only as lacking answers to many ques- tions but also as lacking an agreed method for the ﬁnding of answers. (He may have had in mind a contrast with science, perhaps a contrast not dear, albeit for different reasons, to a fellow contributor or two, say Paul Feyerabend or W. V. Quine.) Certainly it is true that philosophy, no doubt because of the peculiar dif- ﬁculty of its questions, is at least as much given to disagreement and dispute as any other kind of inquiry. In fact it may be more given to disagreement and dis- pute than any other inquiry. It has the hardest questions. As a result, this book cannot be wholly consistent. Even with fewer than 291 contributors, if they were as committed to their views as philosophers usually are, and no doubt should be, there would be disagreement. There would be dis- agreement if the book was limited to the thirty-four Oxford philosophers in it, or, say, the various Californians. As it is, there are entries, occasionally cheek by jowl, that ﬁght among themselves, or at any rate jostle. As an editor, I have not tried too hard to subdue or get between my colleagues, but only succumbed to a thought or two about unlikely philosophical propositions. (Nor have I bullied my colleagues about what sort of thing to put into the bibliographies at the ends of their entries, or ruthlessly excluded an entry whose subject is also treated, somewhat differently, somewhere else.) To do so would have produced more decorum but less truth about philosophy. It would also have touched what I hope is another recommendation of the book: it has not only different views but different voices in it. That brings to mind a second matter, that of the 150 contemporary philoso- phers on whom there are entries in the book. The aim was to give to the reader, mainly the general reader, a sense of the philosophical enterprise as it is now being carried forward. (Philosophy, as already remarked, is not a dead or dying subject, but one whose vigour—I am tempted to say its youth—is as great as ever it has been. It is only the sciences and the superstitions that come and go.) Another editor, quite as sane, would have looked around at his cohorts, con- templated a reputation or two, no doubt mused on the fact of philosophical fashion, and chosen somewhat differently. For the ﬁrst edition, a list of contemporaries was initially drawn up mainly by me. The list was subsequently the subject of a kindly suggestion or two from possible contributors to the book who laid eye on it, and perhaps a letter or two of hurt pride or disbelief. Notice was taken of these pleas, in a certain way. The initial list of contemporaries was submitted to a jury of a dozen distinguished
x Preface philosophers from all parts and inclinations of the subject. They agreed about the large and indisputable core of the list, but not much more. They did not much agree about their proposed additions to the rest of the list, or their pro- posed deletions from it. No proposed inclusion or deletion got more than two votes from the twelve good philosophers and true. Any contemporary who did get two votes was added in. No deletions were made. For this second edition, opinions were taken from thirty philosophers, of all or anyway various persuasions, as to how to make the contemporaries in the book representative of the new millennium well under way. The results of this poll contained some biffs to my loyalties and sensibilities. But, being a true as against merely a hierarchic democrat, I acted on the advice. Should you be cer- tain, reader, that this little anointing is a very serious matter, remember David Hume, Saint David, the greatest of British philosophers. He did not get elected to professorships at Edinburgh and Glasgow, which accolades went instead to Mr Cleghorn and Mr Clow. Finally, my gratitude, of which there is a lot. I am grateful to many people, ﬁrst the 291 contributors. They did not do too much satisﬁcing. Contributors to the ﬁrst edition put up with a change of mind about entry lengths. Many of them put up with a lot more, including a lot of letters about revising their work or making new starts. Some were stalwarts who did a goodly number of entries very well. They rush to mind, and produce glows of gratitude there. Some were philosophical about the sad fact that their prize entry, say the Frankfurt School or the indeterminacy of translation, did not get into the book because the editor had blundered and earlier assigned it to someone else. Some contributors and others were decent or anyway silent when their proposed entries, say marital act and Ayn Rand, did not penetrate my fortress of philosophical principle. My special thanks to Peter Momtchiloff, doyen of the world’s philosophy editors, the Philosophy Editor of Oxford University Press. This book is almost as much his doing as mine, despite my sole responsibility for errors, infelicities, and one or two judgements with which he is not in absolute agreement. I am also grateful to the following fourteen philosophers who read all or parts of the ﬁrst manuscript and issued proposals for its improvement: Christopher Kirwan, David Hamlyn, and Jonathan Lowe, above all, and also Simon Blackburn, Alexander Broadie, Jonathan Cohen, Ross Harrison, Ronald Hepburn, Michael Inwood, Nicola Lacey, David Miller, Richard Norman, Anthony O’Hear, and Richard Swinburne. My thanks as well to the jury of distinguished philosophers who cast an eye over the initial list of their contemporaries, and then to the thirty advisers in this matter for the second edition. Thanks too to all of these: Ingrid Coggin Honderich; Jane O’Grady; Alan Lacey, who did the Chronological Table of Philosophy and the Maps of Philosophy; John Allen of the library at University College London; Helen Betteridge, Vivien Crew, and Ann Wooldridge for some secretarial assistance; Tim Barton, Laurien Berkeley, Angela Blackburn, and Frances Morphy of Oxford University Press, all of whom were fortitudinous, and almost always right. t.h.
Contents list of portraits xii list of contributors xiii on using the book xix The Companion: Alphabetical Entries 1 appendices Logical Symbols 971 Maps of Philosophy 973 A Chronological Table of Philosophy 991 sources of illustrations 1003 index and list of entries 1005
List of Portraits ancient philosophy Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Socrates, Democritus 754 Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Plotinus 35 late ancient and early medieval philosophy Augustine, Boethius, Abelard, Anselm 344 medieval philosophy Avicenna, Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, Aquinas 580 founders of modern philosophy Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, Kant 784 Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume 243 philosophy in britain Francis Bacon, Reid, Sidgwick, Bradley 249 Bentham, Mill, Wollstonecraft, Burke 937 Moore, Russell, Wittgenstein, Collingwood 121 Ryle, Ayer, Strawson, Popper 676 french philosophy Rousseau, Comte, Bergson, Merleau-Ponty 320 Sartre, de Beauvoir, Foucault, Althusser 278 continental european philosophy Hegel, Marx, Lukacs, Croce 366 Fichte, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche 334 Husserl, Frege, Ortega y Gasset, Heidegger 171 philosophy in america Edwards, Peirce, James, Santayana 749 Dewey, Carnap, Quine, Goodman 25 Davidson, Putnam, Searle, Nagel 609 Rawls, MacIntyre, Kripke, Dennett 628 eastern philosophy Confucius, Nishida, Tagore, Radhakrishnan 429 philosophy at the end of the twentieth century Kuhn, Lewis, Rorty, Williams 483
Contributors Almost all the contributors are or were members of the departments, faculties or sub-faculties of philosophy at the mentioned universities. H.I.B. Prof. Harold I. Brown A.C.A. Dr Alison Ainley Northern Illinois University University College, Dublin I.B. Sir Isaiah Berlin E.B.A. Prof. Edwin B. Allaire University of Oxford University of Texas, Austin J.B.B. Prof. James Bogen H.E.A. Prof. Henry E. Allison Pitzer College Boston University J.Ber. Prof. Jose Bermudez M.A. Dr Milos Arsenijevic ˇ ´ Washington University, St Louis University of Heidelberg J.Bish. Dr John Bishop M.M.A. Prof. Marilyn McCord Adams University of Auckland University of Oxford J.Bro. Prof. Justin Broackes S.R.A. Dr Sophie Allen Brown University University of Oxford J.W.B. See Alvin Goldman W.E.A. Prof. William E. Abraham University of California, Santa Cruz K.B. Prof. Kent Bach San Francisco State University A.B. Prof. Akeel Bilgrami Columbia University K.Ber. See Pauza A.Bel. Mr Andrew Belsey L.W.B. Prof. Lewis W. Beck University of Wales, Cardiff University of Rochester A.Bre. Prof. Andrew Brennan M.B. Prof. Myles Brand University of Western Australia Indiana University A.Bro. Prof. Alexander Broadie N.B. Prof. Ned Block University of Glasgow New York University D.B. Mr David Bostock R.L.B. Prof. Robert Bernasconi University of Oxford Memphis State University D.Bak. Prof. David Bakhurst R.P.B. Prof. Richard Bellamy Queen’s University, Ontario University of Reading D.Ber. Prof. David Berman S.B. Prof. Sissela Bok Trinity College, Dublin Harvard University G.B. Prof. George Bozonis S.W.B. Prof. Simon Blackburn University of Athens University of Cambridge G.H.B. Prof. Graham Bird T.L.B. Prof. Tom L. Beauchamp University of Manchester Georgetown University H.A.B. Prof. Hugo Adam Bedau T.R.B. Prof. Thomas Baldwin Tufts University University of York
xiv Contributors T.C. Prof. Tim Crane W.B. Prof. Dr Wilhelm Baumgartner University College London University of Würzburg T.Car. Prof. Terrell Carver A.C. Prof. Arindam Chakrabarti University of Bristol University of Delhi T.Chi. See Cartwright A.Car. Prof. Alisa Carse Georgetown University W.C. Mr William Charlton University of Edinburgh B.J.C. Prof. Jack Copeland University of Canterbury, D.D. Prof. Donald Davidson New Zealand University of California, Berkeley C.A.J.C. Prof. C. A. J. Coady F.D. Prof. Fred Dretske University of Melbourne Stanford University C.C. Prof. Charles Crittenden J.D. Prof. Jonathan Dancy California State University, University of Reading Northridge M.D. Sir Michael Dummett D.C. Dr David Charles University of Oxford University of Oxford N.C.D. Mr N. C. Denyer D.E.C. Prof. David E. Cooper University of Cambridge University of Durhan N.J.H.D. Prof. Nicholas Dent F.C. Prof. Frank Ciofﬁ University of Birmingham University of Essex R.D. Prof. Ronald Dworkin F.Chr. Prof. Ferrell Christensen University College London University of Alberta R.De G. Prof. Richard T. De George J.C. Prof. James Cargile University of Kansas University of Virginia R.S.D. Prof. R. S. Downie J.Cot. Prof. John Cottingham University of Glasgow University of Reading W.A.D. Prof. Wayne A. Davis L.J.C. Mr L. Jonathan Cohen Georgetown University University of Oxford D.E. Prof. Dorothy Edgington M.C. Mr Michael Cohen University of Oxford University of Wales, Swansea J.D.G.E. Prof. J. D. G. Evans M.J.C. Prof. Max Cresswell Queen’s University, Belfast Victoria University, Wellington P.E. Prof. Paul Edwards N.C. Prof. Nancy Cartwright Brooklyn College London School of Economics and E.J.F. Dr Elizabeth Frazer Political Science University of Oxford Associate contributors J.M.F. Prof. John Finnis T.Chi. Timothy Childers University of Oxford R.F.H. Robin Findlay Hendry T.U. Thomas E. Uebel N.F. Prof. Nicholas G. Fotion Emory University N.S.C. Prof. Norman S. Care Oberlin College O.F. Prof. Owen Flanagan Duke University Q.C. Prof. Quassim Cassam University College London P.K.F. Prof. Paul K. Feyerabend University of California, R.Clif. Prof. Robert Clifton Berkeley University of Western Ontario P.R.F. Prof. Philippa Foot R.Cri. Dr Roger Crisp University of Oxford University of Oxford A.C.G. Dr Anthony Grayling S.C. Prof. Steven Coutinho Birkbeck College, London Towson University A.Gew. Prof. Alan Gewirth S.R.L.C. Prof. Stephen Clark University of Chicago University of Liverpool
Contributors xv R.P.G. Prof. Robert P. George A.Gom. Dr Antoni Gomila Princeton University University of Salamanca S.A.G. Prof. S. A. Grave A.Gup. Prof. Anil Gupta University of Western Australia Indiana University S.G. Dr Stefan Gosepath A.H.G. Prof. Alan Goldman Hochschule der Künste, Berlin University of Miami S.Gard. Prof. Sebastian Gardner A.I.G. Prof. Alvin Goldman University College, London Rutgers University S.Gau. Prof. Stephen Gaukroger Associate contributor University of Sydney J.W.B. Prof. John Bender A.H. Prof. Alastair Hannay B.G. Prof. Bernard Gert University of Oslo Dartmouth College B.H. Prof. Brad Hooker D.G. Prof. Don Gustafson University of Reading University of Cincinnati C.H. Prof. Colin Howson G.G. Prof. Gary Gutting London School of Economics and Political University of Notre Dame Science J.C.A.G. Prof. J. C. A. Gaskin C.J.H. Prof. C. J. Hookway Trinity College, Dublin University of Shefﬁeld J.C.B.G. Mr J. C. B. Gosling D.W.H. Prof. D. W. Hamlyn University of Oxford Birkbeck College, London J.G. Prof. Jorge J. E. Gracia D.W.Has. Prof. D. W. Haslett State University of New York, Buffalo University of Delaware Associate contributors E.L.H. Mr E. L. Hussey M. G. Michael German University of Oxford E. M. Elizabeth Millan G.P.H. Mr Geoffrey Hawthorn J.Gar. Dr James Garvey University of Cambridge Royal Institute of Philosophy I.C.H. Ingrid Coggin Honderich J.O.G. Prof. James O. Grunebaum Royal Institute of Philosophy Buffalo State College J.Hal. Prof. John Haldane J.P.G. Prof. James P. Grifﬁn University of St Andrews University of Oxford J.Heil Prof. John Heil L.E.G. Prof. Lenn E. Goodman Washington University, St Louis Vanderbilt University J.Horn. Prof. Jennifer Hornsby L.P.G. Prof. Lloyd P. Gerson Birkbeck College, London St Michael’s College, Toronto K.H. Prof. Karen Hanson M.D.G. Dr Marcus Giaquinto Indiana University University College London K.J.J.H. Prof. Jaakko Hintikka M.G. See Gracia Boston University P.G. Prof. Paul Gilbert P.H. Prof. Paul Humphreys University of Hull University of Virginia P.Good. Prof. Peter Goodrich P.H.H. Prof. Peter H. Hare Birkbeck College, London State University of New York, Buffalo P.G.-S. Prof. Peter Godfrey-Smith P.M.S.H. Dr Peter Hacker Australian National University University of Oxford P.L.G. Mr Patrick Gardiner R.B.H. Prof. R. Baine Harris University of Oxford Old Dominion University R.G. Prof. Reinhardt Grossmann R.F.H. See Cartwright Indiana University R.H. Dr Ross Harrison R.M.G. Prof. Richard M. Gale University of Cambridge University of Pittsburgh
xvi Contributors S.T.K. Prof. Steven T. Kuhn R.Har. Prof. Russell Hardin Georgetown University New York University W.K. Prof. Will Kymlicka R.J.H. Mr R. J. Hawkins Queen’s University, Ontario University of Oxford A.J.L. Mr Ardon Lyon R.W.H. Prof. R. W. Hepburn City University, London University of Edinburgh A.R.L. Dr Alan Lacey V.H. Mr Vincent Hope King’s College London University of Edinburgh B.L. Prof. Brian Leiter W.A.H. Prof. Wilfrid Hodges University of Texas, Austin Queen Mary and Westﬁeld College, London E.J.L. Prof. E. J. Lowe M.J.I. Mr M. J. Inwood University of Durham University of Oxford H.L. Dr Hallvard Lillehammer C.J. Prof. C. Janaway University of Cambridge University of Southampton J.L. Dr James Logue E.R.J. Dr Roger Jones University of Oxford Berea College, Kentucky J.Lac. Prof. John Lachs M.D.J. Prof. Mark D. Jordan Vanderbilt University University of Notre Dame J.Lev. Prof. Jerrold Levinson O.R.J. Mr O. R. Jones University of Maryland, College Park University of Wales, Aberystwyth K.-S.L. Prof. Kwang-Sae Lee P.F.J. Prof. Paul F. Johnson Kent State University St Norbert College M.L. Prof. Margaret Little S.J. Stuart Jeffries Georgetown University The Guardian N.L. Prof. Noa Latham S.P.J. Dr Simon James University of Calgary University of Durham N.M.L. Prof. Nicola Lacey A.J.P.K. Sir Anthony Kenny London School of Economics University of Oxford O.L. Prof. Oliver Leaman C.A.K. Mr Christopher Kirwan University of Kentucky University of Oxford R.Le P. Prof. Robin Le Poidevin C.H.K. Prof. C. H. Koch University of Leeds University of Copenhagen W.G.L. Prof. William G. Lycan H.-H.K. Prof. Hans-Herbert Kögler University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign A.M. Prof. Adam Morton J.A.K. Dr Jill Kraye University of Alberta Warburg Institute, London A.MacI. Prof. Alasdair MacIntyre J.J.K. Prof. Joel J. Kupperman University of Notre Dame University of Connecticut A.R.M. Prof. Alfred R. Mele J.K. Prof. Jaegwon Kim Florida State University Brown University B.M. Dr Benjamin Morison J.Kek. Prof. John Kekes University of Oxford State University of New York, Albany C.McK. Prof. Catherine McKeen L.K. Prof. Leszek Kolakowski SUNY Brockport University of Oxford D.M. Dr Derek Matravers M.K. Dr Martha Klein Open University University of Oxford D.McL. Prof. David McLellan P.K. Prof. Peter King University of Kent, Canterbury University of Toronto D.McN. Dr Mike McNamee R.K. Prof. Robert Kirk University of Wales, Swansea University of Nottingham
Contributors xvii R.J.N. Prof. Richard Norman E.J.M. Dr Elinor Mason University of Kent, Canterbury University of Edinburgh S.N. Dr Svante Nordin E.M. See Gracia University of Lund F.MacB. Dr Fraser MacBride T.N. Prof. Thomas Nagel Birkbeck College, New York University London A.D.O. Dr Alexander D. Oliver G.B.M. Prof. Gareth B. Matthews University of Cambridge University of Massachusetts, Amherst A.O’H. Prof. Anthony O’Hear University of Buckingham G.F.M. Prof. Gregory Mellema Calvin College J.O’G. Ms Jane O’Grady Fine Arts College, London G.I.M. Prof. George I. Mavrodes University of Michigan, D.P. Prof. David Papineau Ann Arbor King’s College London G.W.McC. Prof. Gregory McCulloch D.Pri. Dr D. H. Pritchard University of Nottingham University of Stirling J.J.M. Prof. Jack Macintosh G.P. Prof. Graham Priest University of Calgary University of Melbourne J.M. Prof. Joseph Margolis G.R.P. Prof. Graham Parkes Temple University University of Hawaii, Manoa J.McM. Prof. Jeff McMahan I.S.P. Prof. Ingmar Persson Rutgers University University of Lund K.M. Dr Kevin Magill L.P. Dr Letizia Panizza University of Wolverhampton Royal Holloway College, London M.G.F.M. Prof. Michael Martin University College London M.J.P. Prof. M. J. Petry Erasmus University N.M. Prof. Nenad Miscevic ˇˇ ˇ Central European University M.P. Dr Miroslav Pauza Institute of Philosophy, Prague P.J.M. Dr Penelope Mackie University of Nottingham Associate contributors K.Ber. Prof. Karel Berka P.N.M. Mr Peter Momtchiloff V.S. Dr Vera Soudilova Oxford University Press M.Pot. Prof. Matjaz Potrc ˇ ˇ R.B.M. Prof. Ruth Barcan Marcus University of Ljubljana Yale University O.P. Dr Oliver Pooley R.D.M. Prof. Ronald D. Milo University of Oxford University of Arizona P.P. Prof. Philip Pettit S.M. Prof. Susan Mendus Princeton University University of York S.P. Mr Stephen Priest S.McC. Prof. Storrs McCall University of Oxford McGill University T.P. Dr Thomas Pink S.M.-G. Dr Saladin Meckled-Garcia King’s College London University College London A.Q. The Rt. Hon. Lord Quinton C.N. Prof. Christopher Norris University of Oxford University of Wales, Cardiff P.L.Q. Prof. Philip L. Quinn H.W.N. Prof. Harold Noonan University of Notre Dame University of Nottingham W.V.Q. Prof. W. V. Quine J.N. Prof. Jan Narveson Harvard University University of Waterloo B.B.R. Mr Bede Rundle P.J.P.N. Dr Paul Noordhof University of Oxford University of Nottingham
xviii Contributors R.M.S. Prof. Mark Sainsbury M.R. Prof. Michael Ruse University of Texas, Austin Florida State University R.S. Prof. Richard Schacht N.R. Prof. Nicholas Rescher University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign University of Pittsburgh R.W.S. Prof. R. W. Sharples P.R. Prof. Peter Railton University College London University of Michigan, Ann Arbor S.S. Prof. Stewart Shapiro S.D.R. Dr Sarah Richmond Ohio State University University College London T.S. Prof. Timothy Schroeder S.L.R. Dr Stephen Read University of Manitoba University of St Andrews T.L.S.S. Prof. T. L. S. Sprigge B.C.S. Dr Barry C. Smith University of Edinburgh Birkbeck College, London V.S. See Pauza D.H.S. Prof. David H. Sanford Duke University V.Such. Dr Victor Suchar Bath Royal Literary and Scientiﬁc Institute E.S. Prof. Ernest Sosa Brown University B.T. Prof. Bergeth Tregenza California State University, Northridge E.T.S. Prof. Edward Sankowski University of Oklahoma C.C.W.T. Prof. C. C. W. Taylor University of Oxford J.E.R.S. Mr Roger Squires University of St Andrews G.M.T. Prof. G. M. Tamas Hungarian Academy of Sciences J.M.S. Prof. John Skorupski University of St Andrews I.T. Prof. Ivo Tretera Charles University, Prague J.P.S. Prof. James P. Sterba University of Notre Dame L.S.T. Prof. Larry S. Temkin Rutgers University J.R.S. Prof. John Searle University of California, Berkeley R.E.T. Prof. Robert Tully St Michael’s College, Toronto J.S. Dr Jeremy Stangroom The Philosophers’ Magazine R.P.L.T. Dr Roger Teichmann University of Oxford K.-l. S. Prof. Kwong-loi Shun University of California, Berkeley T.U. See Cartwright L.F.S. Mr Leslie F. Stevenson R.V. Mr. Ruediger Vaas University of St Andrews University of Giessen L.S. Prof. Lawrence Sklar A.D.W. Mr Andrew Williams University of Michigan, Ann Arbor University of Reading M.S. Prof. Michael Slote A.W.W. Prof. Allen Wood University of Miami Stanford University P.F.S. Professor Paul Snowdon Cath.W. Prof. Catherine Wilson University College London University of British Columbia P.S. Prof. Peter Singer C.J.F.W. Prof. C. J. F. Williams Princeton University University of Bristol R.A.K.S. Dr Rowland Stout C.W. Mr Colwyn Williamson University College, Dublin University of Wales, Swansea R.A.S. Prof. Robert Sharpe D.N.W. Prof. Douglas Walton University of Wales, Lampeter University of Winnipeg R.C.Sle. Prof. R. C. Sleigh, Jr. G.J.W. Sir Geoffrey Warnock University of Massachusetts, Amherst University of Oxford R.C.Sol. Prof. Robert C. Solomon I.P.W. Prof. John White University of Texas, Austin Institute of Education, London R.G.S. Prof. R. G. Swinburne J.Wol. Prof. Jan Wolen ´ski University of Oxford Jagiellonian University, Cracow
Contributors xix P.W. Ms Patricia Walsh J.Woo. Prof. John Woods King’s College London University of British Columbia R.C.W. Prof. Roy C. Weatherford K.W. Prof. Kwasi Wiredu University of South Florida University of South Florida R.S.W. Prof. Roger Woolhouse K.Wuch. Prof. Dr Kurt Wuchterl University of York University of Stuttgart S.W. Dr Sybil Wolfram M.W. Prof. Michael Wreen University of Oxford Marquette University T.W. Prof. Timothy Williamson M.Walz. Prof. Michael Walzer University of Oxford Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton H.Z. Prof. Hossein Ziai M.Warn. Baroness Warnock University of California, Los Angeles University of Cambridge