Bài giảng Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Bảo vệ thực vật

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUẢNG NAM KHOA KHOA HỌC TỰ NHIÊN VÀ KỸ THUẬT

BÀI GIẢNG

Học phần: TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH

Mã học phần: 2101129

Ngành đào tạo: ĐẠI HỌC BẢO VỆ THỰC VẬT

1. Giảng viên biên soạn: Nguyễn Hoàng Lan Anh

2. Số tín chỉ/đơn vị học trình: 02

3. Tổ/Khoa quản lý học phần: Tổ Sinh học - BVTV/ Khoa KHTN&KT

Quảng Nam, 1/2024

LỜI NÓI ĐẦU

Bài giảng tiếng Anh chuyên ngành là tài liệu dùng giảng dạy cho sinh viên chuyên ngành Bảo vệ thực vật và có thể làm tài liệu tham khảo cho các ngành học về Nông lâm. Bài giảng được biên soạn trên cơ sở sinh viên đã học qua chương trình tiếng Anh cơ bản và có vốn kiến thức cơ bản về ngữ pháp tiếng Anh.

Mục đích của bài giảng là giúp sinh viên làm quen với văn phong tiếng Anh khoa học Nông nghiệp; rèn luyện kĩ năng đọc hiểu các văn bản khoa học; cung cấp cho sinh viên các từ, thuật ngữ chuyên ngành; luyện tập viết và dịch một số cấu trúc ngữ pháp thường gặp.

Nội dung của bài giảng gồm 7 units. Mỗi unit đều có phần đọc hiểu được trích dẫn hoặc phỏng theo các tài liệu khoa học nhằm đảm bảo tính xác thực của văn bản. Các bài tập ngữ pháp được biên soạn theo ngữ pháp tiếng Anh cơ bản và kết hợp các kiến thức chuyên ngành nông nghiệp cơ bản mà sinh viên đã được học.

Việc biên soạn giáo trình này chắc chắn không tránh khỏi những khiếm khuyết. Chúng tôi mong nhận được góp ý xây dựng của đồng nghiệp và người học để bài giảng ngày càng hoàn thiện hơn

MỤC LỤC

Unit 1. THE PARTS OF A PLANT AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Mục tiêu:

- Tổng hợp được các từ vựng, thành ngữ liên quan đến cấu tạo của thực vật

- Thành thạo cách sử dụng câu chủ động và bị động trong văn phong tiếng Anh

khoa học.

- Dịch được các bài viết khoa học liên quan.

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc được từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến các bộ phận cấu tạo và

chức năng của thực vật;

- Phân tích ngữ pháp của câu.

- Thành thạo kỹ năng nghe, nói, viết; Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt.

1.1. Reading text 1A plant is a living organism. 2It is made up of different part, each of which has a particular purpose, or specialized function. 3If one part of the plant is not functioning properly whole plant will suffer. 4But we may cut flowers off the plant or prune the roots. 5Such damage is only temporary and so the plant will continue to grow. 6The basic parts of a plant are the root system, which is below the ground, and the shoot system above. 7The root of a plant has two main functions. 8It takes in, or absorbs water and minerals from the soil through the root hairs, which are single cells near the tip of each root. 9The other main function of the root is to hold or anchor, the plant firmly in position in the soil. 10Plant such as sugar beet and carrots are able to store food in their roots. 11In this way they can keep growing for more than one season. 12In addition, plants such as clover and lucerne, known as “legumes”, have special bacteria which live in their roots. 13These simple forms of life take nitrogen out of the air which is in the soil. 14Such leguminous plant are usually ploughed under the soil. 15By doing this the soil is made more fertile. 16The shoot system above the ground consists of the stem, the leaves, flowers and fruit. 17One of the functions of the stem is to support the plant. 18Another important function is to enable water and minerial to pass up from the roots to the leaves and flowers. 19Organic materials such as sugar travel down the stem to the roots. 20The leaves grow out of the side of the stem. 21Their main job is to make food for the plant by the process known as photosynthesis. 22For this process sunlight is necessary. 23Water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air are converted into sugar and other carbohydrates. 24During the process oxygen formed and released into the air. 25The flower contains the reproductive organs of the plant. 26The stamens, the stamens produce the male sex cells or spermatid, which are carried in the pollen grains. 27The carpel produces the female sex cells or ovules. 28The fruit, the ripened ovary of the flower, encloses the seeds and protects them while they are developing. 29The seed

itself consists of an embryo and foodstore. 30The embryo is the part which will develop into another plant and the foodstore is necessary to provide nourishment for young plant while it is growing.

VOCABULARY N N N V N N N N Adj

Organism Root System Absorb Mineral Clover Lucerne Legume Leguminous Bacteria/Bacterium N V Plough Adj Fertile N Shoot N Stem N Process N Photosynthesis V Convert Adj Reproductive N Organ N Stamen N Sex cell N Spermatia N Pollen N Grain N Carpel N Ovule N Ovary V Enclose N Embryo N Nourishment sinh vật Rễ cây Hệ thống Hấp thụ, hút Khoáng, khoáng chất Cỏ ba lá Cây cỏ linh lăng (dùng để nuôi súc vật) Cây họ đậu Thuộc cây họ đậu Vi khuẩn Cày, xới đất Màu mỡ Chồi cây, tán cây Thân cây Quá trình Sự quang hợp Chuyển đổi Sinh sản Cơ quan Nhị hoa Tế bào sinh dục Tế bào sinh dục đực (tinh trùng) Hạt phấn Hạt Noãn Bầu nhuỵ Trứng Bao bọc Phôi, mầm Sự dinh dưỡng

EXPRESSION

Được cấu tạo bởi có thể, có khả năng

Cung cấp cái gì cho ai

to be made up of to be able to to provide sth for sth/so to hold sth firmly in position in Giữ chặt cái gì tại một vị trí

In addition hơn nữa

WORD FORMATION

1. New verb can be formed by adding the prefix en, which means make into, cause to be, into an adjectives.

EN + ADJECTIVE/NOUN = VERB

Able (adj) có thể, có khả năng enable (v) làm cho (ai) có khả năng làm gì

Large (adj) rộng enlarge (v) làm rộng thêm

Rich (adj) giàu có enrich (v) làm giàu

Power (n) quyền lực Empower (v) trao quyền, uỷ quyền

Courage (n) can đảm encourage (v) động viên, khuyến khích

2. New adjectives can be formed by adding the suffix -ous, which means having the qualities of into nouns

NOUN + OUS = ADJECTIVE

Legume (n) cây họ đậu leguminous (adj) thuộc cây họ đậu

Fame (n) danh tiếng famous (adj) nổi tiếng

Poison (n) chất độc poisonous (adj) có tính độc

Marvel (n) kì diệu, kì quan marvelous (adj) tuyệt vời, tuyệt diệu

1.2. Comprehension activities

A. CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

1. In sentence 5, such damage refers to:

(a) cutting flowers off the plant.

(b) pruning the roots of the plant.

2. In sentence 8, it refers to:

(a) the shoot system

(b) the root of a plant.

3. In sentence 11, they refers to:

(a) the roots of a plant

(b) plants such as sweet potato and carrots

4. In sentence 13, these simple forms of life refers to:

(a) special bacteria

(b) legumes

B. REPHRASING

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words in italics with expressions from the text which have the same meaning.

1. The roots of plants take in water and minerals from the soil.

2. The single cells near the tip of each root increase their surface area by extending outwards from the root.

3. The roots hold the plant firmly in position in the soil.

4. Some plants have simple forms of life living on their roots.

5. We can improve the fertility of the soil by ploughing under plants such as peanut and lucerne.

6. Sunlight provides the energy for the process of converting water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air into sugars and other carbonhydrates.

7. While growing, the seeds are protected by the ripened ovary of the flowers.

C-SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Study the underline parts of the following sentences.

1. One basic part of the plant is the root system which is below the ground.

2. The roots of a plant absorb water and minerals from the soil though the root hairs, which are single cells near the tip of each root.

3. If one part of a plant is not functioning properly, the whole plant will suffer.

4. The fruit encloses the seeds and protect them while they are developing.

5. One of the functions of the stem is to support the plant.

D-COMPREHENSION CHECK

Study the following statement carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the text.

a. …… Different parts of a plant have specialized functions.

b. …… Not all parts of a plant need function properly.

c. …… If we cut flowers off a plant, the whole plant will suffer.

d. …… The shoot system of a plant is below the ground.

e. …… Water and minerals are absorbed through the root hairs.

f. …… The plant is anchored in the soil by the root system.

g. …… Carrots can keep growing for more than one season.

h. …… Special bacteria live on the roots of all plants.

i. …… The soil is made more fertile by ploughing peanut and lucerne under it.

1.3. Language in use and grammar excercises

A- WRITING DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF THE PLANT

We can define different parts of a plant by:

(a) naming them.

(b) stating the sort (class) they belong to

Examples

NAME: root hairs

CLASS: parts of a plant

FUNCTION: absorb water and minerals from the soil.

DEFINITION: The root hairs are the parts of a plant which absorb water and minerals from the soil.

Use the information below, write out complete definitions of each part of a plant as in the example above.

NAME CLASS FUNCTION

Stem Part of a plant Support the shoot system

Fruit Part of a plant Protect the ripened, or matured, ovary

Stamens Part of a flower Produce the male sex cells, or spermatia

Carpel Part of a flower Produce the female sex cells, or ovules

Embryo Part of a seed (will) develop into an adult plant

Leaves Part of a plant

Manufacture sugars and other carbon-hydrates by photosynthesis

Root Part of a plant Anchor the plant in the soil and absorb water and minerals

protect the flower while they are in the bud stage Sepals Part of a flower Produce the nourishment for the growing embryo foodstore Part of a seed

B-GENERAL STATEMENT OF FUNCTION

We can make general statements about the function of different parts of a plant by naming them and saying what their function is but without saying what class they belong to.

Example

NAME: root hairs

FUNCTION: absorb water and minerals from the soil

GEN. STATEMENT: The root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil.

Answer the questions about what the following parts of a flower or seed do by making general statements. Use information from A.

1. What the root hairs do?

The root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil.

2. What is the function of the root hairs?

The function of the root hairs is to absorb water and minerals from the soil.

a. stem b. fruit c. stamens d. embryo

e. leaves f. root g. sepals h. foodstore

C-THE FORMS OF DEFINITIONS. Refer to A

Definitions often take one of the following forms:

1. [A] is/are/maybe definied as [B] which [C]

Example:

the part of a plant which will develop into another The embryo is defined as plant

[A] [B] [C]

2. [B] which [C] is/are known as [A]

The part of a flower whic h will develop into another plant is known as the embryo

[B] [C] [A]

Expand the followings into full definitions using the patterns illustrated above.

A B C

Photosynthesis The process Transform light energy from the sun into chemical energy

A soil profile A succession of soil horizons Extend from the surface of the soil to the parent rock

Organism Can live in the presence of air Aerobic bacteria

Osmosis biophysical process take place though the tissues of living plant

A leaf complex structure utilize energy from the sun in the manufacture of food

Chloroplasts Bodies absorb sunlight and manufacture food

Stomata of plants Minute openings on surface of the leaf lead to the interior of the leaf and the chloroplasts

Chlorophyll The chemical enable sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into food and other substances

D-GRAMMAR EXERCISE: The Impersonal Passive

Study the following active and passive sentences, and note that passive sentences contain some form of the verb to be together with a past participle.

Active Passive

We improve the fertility of the soil. The fertility of the soil is improved.

The fruit enclosed the seeds. The seeds were enclosed by the fruit.

We should plough under the leguminous plant The leguminous plant should be ploughed under

Write down the passive version of the following active sentences.

1. a. The tiny root hairs absorb mineral and water.

b. An increase in the number of root hairs increases the power of absorption.

2. a. The fruit encloses the seeds.

b. The fruit protects them while they are developing.

3. a. The plant takes in oxygen.

b. The plant uses oxygen to break down carbonhydrates.

4. a. Wind and insects transfer pollen, from one flower to another.

b. They deposit the pollen on the stigma of the other flower.

5. a. The human body requires small quantities of several minerals.

b. The human body obtains these minerals from plants.

6. a. We can use some roots to reproduce the species.

b. We should remove the whole root of harmful weeds such as docks instead of

ploughing them in lightly.

Now combine the passive sentences you have written following the clue provided.

1. Water and minerals …………… by the tiny root hairs. Therefore, the power of absorption …………… by an increase in the number of root hairs.

2. The seeds …………… by the fruit. Consequently, they …………… while they are developing.

3. Oxygen …………… in by the plant and …………… to break down carbonhydrates. 4. When pollen …………… by the wind and insects from one flower to another, it …………… on the stigma of the other flower.

5. Small quantities of several minerals …………… by the human body …………… from plants.

6. Some roots …………… to reproduce the species. Thus, the whole root of harmful weeds such as docks …………… in stead of …………… lightly.

1.4. Translate into Vietnamese

FARMERS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Agriculture is one of the world's most important industries. It produces food and provides employment for millions of people. Farmers work on the land and try to control and adapt the natural ecosystem. They use fire to clear the land and they irrigate crops.

They plant crops at certain times of the year. They try to control pests and diseases. In hunting and gathering societies, people have very little impact on the natural environment. In urban societies, people have a very large impact. Agricultural

ecosystems affect the environment more than hunting and gathering societies, but not as much as urban societies.

Agro-ecosystems can be complex, with hundreds of crops and animals, or they can have just one type of plant and animal. Two of the most important agro-ecosystems in Asia are slash-and-burn cultivation (also called 'swidden' or 'upland agriculture') and lowland rice cultivation.

Unit 2. THE LIFE CYCLE OF A PLANT

Mục tiêu:

- Ghi nhớ được các từ vựng, thành ngữ liên quan đến chu kì sống của thực vật.

- Thành thạo cách sử dụng các từ ngữ chỉ thời gian và mức độ trong văn phong tiếng Anh khoa học.

- Dịch được các bài viết khoa học liên quan.

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến chu kỳ sống của tế bào thực vật.

- Phân tích cấu trúc ngữ pháp của câu; Thành thạo kỹ năng, nghe, nói viết.

- Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt và làm được các dạng bài tập.

2.1. Reading text 1The life cycle of a typical annual plant can be divided into several stages. 2The first stage is germination. 3Seeds remain dormant, or in a resting stage if they are kept cool and dry. 4When the amount of moisture and the temperature level are right, the seeds germinate and start growing. 5Certain conditions are necessary for this to happen. 6An essential condition is that the seeds must be alive. 7Sometimes seeds are dried at a temperature which is too high. 8This has two effects: The water content in the seeds is reduced too much, and certain essential proteins are destroyed. 9As a result, the seeds die. 10Other conditions for germination concern the amount of moisture in the soil. 11If dry seeds are planted in a dry soil, they will not germinate until it rains. 12On the other hand, if there is too much water in the soil, the seeds will not germinate either. 13This is because wet soils remain cold for a longer period of time than drier, well-drained soils. 14If the soil is too cold germination will not occur. 15An additional reason for seeds not germinating is that badly drained soils may lack sufficient oxygen. 16Dormant seeds require very little oxygen in order to stay alive, but when they start to germinate, they require more. 17In the first stage of germination, the primary root, or radicle, emerges. 18Then the stem pushes its way upward until it appears above the surface of the soil. 19At the same time, root system grows downward, and begins to spread through the soil. 20In the early stages of development, the seedling depends entirely on the foodstore in the seed but as soon as the first leaves are produced, it is able to manufacture food for itself. 21The seedling begins photosynthesis. 22Next, the plant enters the stage of rapid growth. 23In this stage of the life cycle, the plant begins to grow to its full size. 24When it is mature enough, it flowers, and when this happens, pollination and fertilization are ready to take place. 25In the process of pollination, the pollen is carried by wind or insects from the stamens to the stigma of the carpel. 26It germinates on the stigma and grows down the style into the ovary, where fertilization takes place.

VOCABULARY

Cycle Typical Annual divide (into) stage germinate germination dormant moisture level condition essential effect content reduce destroy result result (in) concern drain lack (in) sufficient radicle emerge (from sth) push surface spread depend (on) seedling size mature pollination fertilization take place pollen insect stamen stigma N Adj Adj V N V N Adj N N N Adj N/V N V V N V V N/V V/N Adj N V V N V V N N Adj N N V N N N N Chu kì Điển hình Hằng năm, cả năm, kéo dài 1 năm Chia, phân chia (thành nhiều phần) Giai đoạn Nảy mầm (cây) Sự nẩy mầm Tạm thời không hoạt động, nằm im Hơi nước, bọt nước trong không khí Mức độ Điều kiện Thiết yếu, chủ yếu Tác động, tác dụng Hàm lượng Giảm, làm cho giảm Phá huỷ, tiêu diệt Kết quả Dẫn đến, đưa đến Liên quan đến Cống rãnh, mương/ Làm cho thoát đi (nước) Thiếu/ tình trạng thiếu Đủ Rễ mầm (bộ phận sẽ phát triển thành cây con) Nhô ra, nhô lên Đẩy Bề mặt Lan toả, trải, dang ra Phụ thuộc vào Cây con Kích thước, cỡ Lớn, trưởng thành Sự thụ phấn Sự thụ tinh, thụ phấn Xảy ra Hạt phấn Côn trùng Nhị hoa Đầu nhụy

carpel style Ovary N N N Lá noãn Vòi nhụy Bầu nhụy

EXPRESSIONS

in order to + verb At the same time to be ready to + verb On the other hands Để, Để cho (đứng trước nhóm từ chỉ mục đích) Đồng thời Sẵn sàng (để làm một việc gì) Mặt khác (dùng để nói một quan điểm khác).

WORD FORMATION

Several nouns can be formed by adding the suffix -ation (or -ition, -sion) into verbs.

VERB + -ATION (-ITION/ -SION) = NOUN

Germinate (v) Nảy mầm  Germination (n) Sự nảy mầm

Confess (v) Thú nhận  Confession (n) Sự thú nhận

Hesitate (v) Do dự, lưỡng lự  Hesitation (n) Sự do dự, sự ngập ngừng

Compete (v) Cạnh tranh  Competition (n) Cuộc thi đấu

Divide (v) Phân chia  Division (n) Sự phân chia

Another way of forming nouns is to add the suffixes -ment, which means result or means of an action, into certain verbs.

VERB+-MENT = NOUN

Develop (v) Phát triển  Development (n) Sự phát triển

Govern (v) Quản lí  Government (n) Chính phủ

State (v) phát biểu  Statement (n) lời tuyên bố

Require (v) Yêu cầu  Requirement (n) sự yêu cầu

2.2. Comprehension activities

A - CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

1. In sentence 5, this refers to:

(a) the life cycle of a plant

(b) the germination of a seed

2. In sentence 8, this refers to:

(a) too high a temperature

(b) the drying of seeds

3. In sentence 13, this refers to:

(a) too much water in the soil (b) seeds not germinating

4. In sentence 20, it refers to:

(a) the seed (b) the foodstore (c) the seedling

5. In sentence 24, it.......it refers to:

(a) its full size (b) the plant (c) the life cycle

6. In sentence 24, this happens refers to:

(a) when the plant begins to grow to its full size

(b) when the plant enters the stage of rapid growth (c) when the plant flowers

7. In sentence 26, it refers to:

(a) the pollen (b) the stamens (c) the stigma

B - REPHRASING

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words in italics with expressions from the text which have the same meaning

1. The seed starts growing when there is enough air or water and the temperature level are right.

2. A seed will only germinate when there is enough air in the soil.

3. Seeds which are in a resting state require very little air to remain alive.

4. As soon as the stem and leaves appear above the surface of the soil, they begin to manufacture food.

5. After the plant has appeared above the surface of the soil, it enters the stage of life when it begins to grow to its full size.

6. The process of carrying the pollen to the stigma is brought about by wind or insects.

C - SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Study the following sentences. Focus on the underlined parts.

1. Seeds remain dormant if they are kept cool and dry.

2. When the amount of moisture and the temperature level are right, the seeds germinate.

3. An essential condition is that the seeds must be alive.

4. If dry seeds are planted in a dry soil, they will not germinate until it rains.

5. As soon as the first leaves are produce d , the seedling is able to manufacture food for

itself.

6. The pollen germinates on the stigma and grows down the style into the ovary, where

fertilization takes place.

D-COMPREHENSION CHECK

Study the following statement carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the reading text.

……1. Before a seed germinates, it is in a dormant state.

……2. When the temperature level is right the seed will germinate.

……3. If seeds are dried at too high a temperature they will die.

……4. If a soil is too dry seeds will not germinate.

……5. The temperature of wet soil is lower than that of well-drained soil.

……6. Dormant seeds cannot stay alive in a badly drained soil.

……7. The root system forms after the stem appears above the surface of the soil.

……8. The seed contains enough food to nourish the seedling until the first leaves are

produend

2.3. Language in use and grammar excercises

A-DEFINITIONS OF PROCESS

Processes can be defined by identifying them by what happens during their course of

action.

Example

Name of process: photosynthesis

Identifying description: water and carbon dioxide are built up to form sugars and

other carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

Definition:

Photosynthesis is the process whereby water and carbon dioxide are built up to form sugars and other carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

Or:

Photosynthesis is the process by which water and carbon dioxide are built up to form sugars and other carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

Now match the names of the processes in the list on the left to the identifying descriptions of their course of action. in the list on the right. Write definitions of the process in the two ways shown above in the example.

a. transpiration 1.one of the male gametes unites with the female gamete in the ovule

b. germination 2. pollen grains are transferred from the stamen to the stigma of the female parts

c. pollination 3.water passes through the leaf cells and evaporates into the air

d. fertilization 4. nutrients in the soil pass through the cell membranes into the root hairs

e. osmosis 5. the seed 'awaken' from its dormant state and start growing

a. ……; b. ……; c. ……; d. ……; e. ……

B-GENERAL STATEMENTS OF PROCESS

We can make general statements about processes by describing what happens during their course of action.

Example

Name of process: photosynthesis

General description: water and carbon dioxide are built up to form sugars and other

carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

General statement:

In the process of photosynthesis water and carbon dioxide are built up to form sugars and other carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

Answer questions about the following processes using the information from Exercise A above.

Example

- What happens in/during the process of photosynthesis?

- In/During the process of photosynthesis water and carbon dioxide are built up to sugars and other carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

(a) transpiration (b) germination (c) pollination

(d) fertilization (e) osmosis

C-STATEMENTS OF FUNCTION AND PROCESS

Statements of function (see unit 1 Language in Use, Exercise B) may be followed by statements of process. Statement of function:

root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil osmosis

Name of plant part: Function: Statement of process: Course of action: nutrients in the soil pass through the cell membranes into the root hairs

 The function of the root hairs is to absorb water and minerals from the soil. The process whereby this is done is called osmosis. In this process nutrients in the soil pass through the cell membranes into the root hairs.

Write out short paragraphs as in the example above using the information below, and the words in brackets.

(a) Name of plant part:

Function: Name of process: Course of action:

- leaves - manufacture food for the plant - photosynthesis - water and carbon dioxide from the air are built up to form sugars and other carbonhydrates in the presence of light.

(b) Name of plant part:

Function: Name of process: Course of action: - embryo in the seed - develop into an adult plant - (the first stage in) germination - the seed 'awaken' from its dormant state and starts growing

Function: Name of process: Course of action:

Name of process: Course of action: - flower - bring about the reproduction of the plant - (the first stage in) pollination - pollen grains are transferred from the stamen to the stigma of the female parts - (the next stage is called) fertilization - one of the male gametes from the pollen unites with the female gamete in the ovule

D-GRAMMAR EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1. Time expressions

Part 1. after, before, when, as soon as, while

Look at these sentences

First the seed is provided with water, warmth and air, then it starts to germinate.

(after, until, while)

 After the seed is provided with water, warmth and air, it starts to germinate.

Rewrite the following sentences in the same way, choosing one of the time expressions given in brackets and putting it at the beginning of the sentence as indicated (/). Omit the words in italics.

1. /The seedling begins to manufacture food for itself. But first it uses up the food stored in the seed. (when, before, after)

2. / The young shoot appears above the surface of the ground. Then it begins the process of photosynthesis. (before, as soon as, while)

3. Once /the oxygen has combined with and broken down the various complex sugars, energy is released. (before, after, while)

4. /Dormant seeds are inactive. During this time, they use very little air. (when, before, while)

5. /The young rice plants are transplanted to the paddy fields. But first they are grown in nurseries for a few weeks where proper care can be given to the seedlings. (before, while, after)

6. Once /the shoot appears, the plant then grows both above and below the ground. (before, while, after)

7. During the time /the seedlings are small, there are few leaves present to use sunlight for photosynthesis. (while, before, as soon as)

8. /A crop of nitrogen-fixing legumes was ploughed in. As a result, the next crop produced a higher yield. (while, until, after)

9. /The spores of disease organisms land on the plant. At the same time, they are killed by fungicides. (as soon as, while, before)

10. /Sometimes there is too much water in the soil. On the occasions it must be drained off. (after, until, when)

Part 2. until

Look at this sentence.

After the seed is provided with water, warmth and air, it starts to germinate.

We can state this in a negative form, as follows:

 The seed DOES NOT start to germinate UNTIL it is provided with water, warmth

and air.

Now look at the sentences you have written in part 1 and rewrite the following as above, using until and making the other changed as indicated:

Sentence 1. Change uses to has used

Sentence 2. Change appears to has appeared

Sentence 3. No other change

Sentence 4. Change inactive to active

Sentence 8. Change the next crop to the soil.

Part 3. then, during, throughout, prior to, first

Compare the following sentences with your answers to part 1. If the sentences have approximately the same meaning, put a tick ((cid:0) ), if not, put a cross (x). 1. (……) Prior to the seedling manufacturing food for itself, it uses up the food stored in the seed.

2. (……) The process of photosynthesis begins and then the young shoot appears above the surface of the ground.

3. (……) Oxygen combines with and breaks down the various complex sugars prior to

energy being released.

4. (……) Throughout the time that dormant seeds are inactive they use very little air.

5. (……) The young rice plants are transplanted to the paddy fields and then they are grown in nurseries for a few weeks where proper care can be given to the seedlings.

6. (……) Prior to the shoot appearing, the plant grows above and below the ground.

7. (……) There are few leaves present to use sunlight for photosynthesis through the time that the seedlings are small.

8. (……) During the time nitrogen fixing legumes were ploughed in, the next crop produced a higher yield.

9. (……) if the spores of disease organisms land on the plant, they are killed by the

fungicide.

10. (……) If there is too much water in the soil, it must be drained off.

EXERCISE 2. Expressions of degree

Part 1. Too

Look at the following pairs of sentences. Note that the first half of each sentence describes a state and the second half expresses a consequence.

(1) The soil was dry, so the seed could not germinate.

(2) The soil was heavy and clayey and, as a result, it was unsuitable for root crops.

We can express these sentences in another way using-the expression of degree too.

(1) The soil was too dry for the seed to germinate.

(2) The soil was too heavy and clayey to be suitable for root crops.

Rewrite the following sentences using too as in examples above and make any other changes that are necessary

1. The soil particles are fine so the water cannot percolate easily through the soil.

2. Because the soil was compact, it was not suitable for root crops.

3. Soil aeration was inadequate and consequently the plant could not receive a proper supply of oxygen.

4. As a result of the soil being waterlogged, it was not possible to produce a healthy

crop.

5. The soil profile was so shallow that it could not give the roots sufficient anchorage. 6. As the root system was poorly developed, the plant could not produce a good top growth.

7. It was dark and as a result photosynthesis could not take place.

8. The current was swift so that the silt would not be deposited.

Part 2. Enough

Now look at the sentences you have written and rewrite them using not + adjective + enough, using the adjective given for each sentence.

Example:

The soil was too dry for the seed to germinate. (wet)

 The soil was not wet enough for the seed to germinate.

The soil was too heavy and clayey to be suitable for root crops. (light and sandy)

 The soil was not light and sandy enough to be suitable for root crops.

1. coarse 5. deep

2. loose 6. Well-developed

3. adequate 7. bright

4. well-drained 8. Slow

2.4. Translate into Vietnamese

TRADITIONAL LOWLAND RICE CULTIVATION

Lowland rice is the most important crop in most parts of Asia. Farmers level the land and build bunds to hold water. They flood the fields with water and plow to get rid of weeds and to puddle the soil to prevent the water from seeping away. They transplant rice seedlings, weed the fields and finally, harvest the grain.

Irrigation is vital for high yields. Most rice is grown in the lowlands because there is enough water, fertile soil and level land. Plowing, transplanting, weeding and harvesting all take a lot of work. Soil fertility varies from place to place, but lowland soils tend to be more fertile than in the uplands.

Traditional methods produce relatively low yields of rice. Farmers also grow crops on the bunds and keep fish in the paddies. They collect frogs, shellfish and snails that grow naturally in the rice fields.

Over the centuries, farmers have selected and planted rice seeds that yield well, resist pests and diseases, and taste good. Traditional farming uses many different varieties of rice.

Unit 3. DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

Mục tiêu:

- Sử dụng được các từ vựng và thành ngữ liên quan đến sự thoát hơi nước và sự tưới nước.

- Sử dụng được các liên từ, từ nối trong viết câu và đoạn văn tiếng Anh.

- Dịch được các bài viết khoa học liên quan

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến sự thoát hơi nước và sự tưới nước.

- Phân tích cấu trúc ngữ pháp của câu; Thành thạo kỹ năng nghe, nói, viết.

- Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt và làm được các dạng bài tập.

3.1. Reading text 1One meaning of drainage is the natural ability of the soil to allow a downward movement of water. 2The ease with which water can pass through a soil depends on the proportion in it coarse and fine particles such as sand and clay. 3The finer the particles become, the more slowly the water percolates, or passes, through the soil. 4So heavy soils such as clay are more impermeable than light soils. 5When there is too much water in the soil, some of it must be drained off. 6This is the other meaning of drainage: The removal of excess water from the soil by ditching or tiling. 7This is done in order to maintain a correct balance of air and water in the soil. 8Good drainage makes a soil easier to work. 9It also helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for the roots of the plants. 10Another advantage is that a well-drained soil will have enough air for aerobic bacteria to break down humus and so provide food for the plant. 11Ditching is one of the most important techniques for draining land. 12Ditches can be cut at certain intervals between the crops. 13These will remove surface water. 14They should be wide and straight, with sloping sides, and they should be regularly cleaned. 15Another important technique is tile drainage. 16Porous drainage tiles may be laid in or on the land and these will help to draw off the surplus water. 17The distance between the land will depend on the level of the land, the permeability of the soil, and the amount of rainfall. 18For very heavy soil, mole drainage can be used. 19This technique is used where water accumulates underground. 20A tunnel is bored about 3 inches in diameter through the earth at a depth of about 2 feet. 21Where and when water is in short supply, irrigation is needed to make up the deficit. 22We should distinguish between the collection of water and its application. 23There are two main sources of irrigation water: surface water and ground water. 24The former may be obtained from rivers, lakes or reservoirs, and the latter is provided by underground water deposits. 25Irrigation from rivers is mainly along canals from dams which have been built across the rivers. 26The water collects behind the dam during the wet season, and it is applied in the fields during the dry season. 27Subterranean water is

obtained by digging or drilling a well. 28In either case it is necessary to lift the water before it can be used for irrigation. 29The amount of water which is required for irrigation depends on a number of factors. 30It depends, firstly, on the type of soil, and the deficit in the soil. 31By this we mean the amount of water which is needed to bring the soil to full capacity. 32It also depends on the type of crop, the stage of growth of the crop and the amount which it will use at that particular time. 33The irrigation requirement of a crop is not the same throughout its growing period. 34Most plants require larger quantities of water during the latter stages than in the earlier stages. 35Sugar cane needs heavier irrigation or more frequent irrigation from about the sixth or seventh month onwards. 36In the same way, grain crops require their maximum irrigation during the time earheads are forming.

VOCABULARY

drainage N Sự thoát nước

natural Adj Tự nhiên, thuộc bản chất

ability N Khả năng

allow V Cho phép (làm việc gì)

movement N Sự chuyển động, cử động, di chuyển

ease N Sự dễ dàng

proportion N Thành phần, tỷ lệ

coarse/fine Adj Thô/Mịn

particle N Hạt (đất)

sand/clay N Cát / Sét

percolate (through) V Chảy chậm, lọc qua

impermeable Adj Không để cho chất lỏng chảy qua, không thấm nước

excess Adj Thêm hoặc phụ (vào số lượng thông thường

ditching N Việc đào hay tu sửa mương, rãnh

tiling N Việc đặt cống (để thoát nước)

balance N Sự cân bằng

increase V Tăng

advantage N Sự thuận lợi

aerobic bacteria V Vi khuẩn hiếu khí

humus N Mùn. Chất hữu cơ màu mỡ, đen, do lá mục, v.v tạo nên

và cần thiết cho sự phì nhiêu của đất

technique N Kĩ thuật

interval N Sự xen kẻ

porous Adj Xốp; có chứa những lổ nhỏ li ti

surplus Adj Số dư, số thặng dư

permeability N Khả năng thấm nước

accumulate V góp dần, tích lũy

tunnel N Rãnh ngầm (dưới lòng đất)

bore V Khoan, đào

diameter N Đường kính

depth N Độ sâu

irrigation N Việc dẫn nước, thủy lợi

deficit N Tình trạng thiếu

distinguish V Phân biệt (Sự khác nhau)

collection N Sự tập kết

application N Sự áp dụng, ứng dụng

obtain V Đạt được, thu được

reservois N Hồ chứa nước (thiên nhiên)

deposit N Mạch, dòng nước ngầm

subterranean Adj Ở dưới mặt đất, ngầm

dig V Đào

drill V Khoan

factor N Nhân tố, yếu tố

capacity N Sức chứa

quantity N Khối lượng

WORD FORMATION

1. Several nouns are formed by adding the suffix -age to a verb base.

VERB + -AGE = NOUN

Drain (v) tháo nước, rút cạn  Drainage (n) Việc thoát nước

Break (v) phá vỡ  Breakage (n) Hành động làm vỡ

Post (v) đưa thư  Postage (n) cước phí cho gửi thư từ

2. The prefix im- (also im-, il-, ir-) can be used to form new words as follows:

 With the meaning in, on:

IN- (or IM-) + VERB = VERB or NOUN

Take (v) lấy  Intake (n) sự lấy vào

Print (v) In ấn  Imprint (v) in, đóng dấu vào

(n) dấu ấn

 With the meaning not:

IN- (or IM-, IL-, IR-) + ADJECTIVE = ADJECTIVE

Relevant (adj) thích hợp  Irrelevant (adj) không thích hợp

Polite (adj) lịch sự  Impolite (adj) bất lịch sự

permeable (adj) thấm được  Impermeable (adj) không thấm nước

3.2. Comprehension activities

A-CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

1. In sentence 2, it refers to:

(a) water (b) a soil

2. In sentence 5, it refers to:

(a) water (b) the soil

3. In sentence 7, this refers to:

(a) excess water in the soil (b) the removal of excess water in the soil.

4. In sentence 13, these refers to:

(a) the crops (b) intervals (c) ditches

5. In sentence 14, t hey refers to:

(a) the crops (b) intervals (c) ditches

6. In sentence 19, this technique refers to:

(a) ditching (b) tile drainage (c) mole drainage

7. In sentence 24, the latter refers to:

(a) ground water (b) surface water (c) rivers, lakes or reservoirs

8. In sentence 26, it refers to:

(a) the wet season (b) the dam (c) the water

9. In sentence 31, this refers to:

(a) the deficit in the soil (b) the type of the soil

10. In sentence 32, it refers to:

(a) full capacity (b) the amount of water which is needed (c) the soil

B-REPHRASING

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the text which have the same meaning.

1. Water passes through the soil quickly when the ease with which water can pass through the soil is high.

2. Removing excess water from the soil helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for the plant roots.

3. Laying porous drainage tiles on the land helps to remove surplus surface water.

4. Water from rivers, lakes or reservoirs may have to be transported along canals a long distance to the fields, whereas water from underground deposits lifted from a well may be close to the crops.

5. How much water a crop requires from irrigation depends partly on the shortage of water in the soil.

C-SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Study the following sentences. Focus on the underlined parts.

1. The finer the particles become, the more slowly the water percolates through the soil.

2. Another advantage is that a well-drained soil will have enough air for aerobic bacteria to break down humus.

3. Tile drainage is used where water accumulates underground.

4. It is necessary to lift the water before it can be used for irrigation.

5. Most plants require larger quantities of water during the later stages than in the earlier stages.

D-COMPREHENSION CHECK

Study the following statement carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the reading text.

1. (……) Water can pass through a permeable soil more easily than through an impermeable soil.

2. (……) Water percolates through a soil more slowly when the soil particles are coarse.

3. (……) A correct balance of air and water is maintained by drainage.

4. (……) The most important technique for draining land is ditching.

5. (……) Underground water can be drawn off by using mole drains.

6. (……) Rivers, lakes or reservoirs provide surface water for irrigation.

7. (……) Irrigation takes place during the wet season.

8. (……) Before subterranean water can be used it must be lifted from a well.

3.3. Language in use and grammar exercises

A- RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STATEMENTS

Part 1. Addition, reinforcement and similarity

Study the following sentences:

(1) Good drainage makes a soil easier to work. It helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for the roots of the plants.

(2) Sugar cane needs heavier irrigation from about the sixth or seventh month onwards. Grain crops require the maximum irrigation during the time earheads are forming.

The relationship between the sentences in (1) is one of addition, reinforcing what has been said previously i.e. the advantages of good drainage. We can relate these sentences as follows:

Example

Good drainage makes a soil easier to work.

In addition,

Moreover, it helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for

Furthermore, the roots of plants.

OR Good drainage makes a soil easier to work. It also helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for the roots of the plants.

The relationship between the sentences in (2) is also one of addition, adding a statement which is similar to what has been said previously i.e. crops need more irrigation during the later stages of growth. We can relate these sentences as follows:

Example

Sugar cane needs heavier irrigation from about the sixth or seventh month onwards.

Similarly, grain crops require the maximum irrigation during

In the same way, the time earheads are forming

Relate the sentences indicated with the following expressions as in the examples above. Write out all the sentences. Replace and re-order the words in the sentences where necessary.

a. 9+10: (1) in addition (2) furthermore.

b. 30, 31 +32: (1) moreover (2) furthermore

c. Unit 1; 7, 8+ 9: in addition

d. Unit 1; 18+ 19: similarly

e. Unit 2; 13, 14+15: (1) furthermore (2) in addition.

Part 2. Consequence, contrast, exemplification and explanation

Relate the sentences indicated with the following expressions. Write out all the sentences. Replace and re-order the words in the sentences where necessary.

a. 3+4: (1) therefore (2) hence

b. 12+13: with the result that

c. 30+31: (1) that is to say (2) or

d. 32+33: This is because

e. 34+35+36: (1) for example (2) similarly

B-EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSES.

Part 1. We can express the purpose for which something is done by using a to- infinitive.

Examples

(a) We cut ditches at certain intervals between the crop. Our purpose (aim) in doing this is to remove surface water.

⇒ (1) We cut ditches at certain intervals between the crops to remove surface water.

⇒ (2) Ditches are cut at certain intervals between the crops to remove surface water.

(b) We may lay porous drainage tiles in or on the land. Our object (aim) in doing this is to draw off the surplus water.

⇒ (1) We may lay porous drainage tiles in or on the land to draw off the surplus water.

⇒ (2) Porous drainage tiles may be laid in or on the land to draw off the surplus water.

Rewrite the following sentences as in (1) and (2) above.

(a) A plant uses sunlight. The purpose in using it is to combine carbon dioxide with water to form carbonhydrates

(1) A plant uses sunlight ……………… carbon dioxide with water to form carbonhydrates.

(2) Sunlight ………………by a plant ……………… carbon dioxide with water to form carbonhydrates.

(b) In countries with inadequate rainfall we irrigate the land. Our object in doing this is to supply enough moisture for satisfactory plant growth.

(1) In countries with inadequate rainfall we irrigate the land ………………

enough moisture for satisfactory plant growth.

(2) In countries with inadequate rainfall the land ……………… enough moisture

for satisfactory plant growth.

(c) The roots of plants such as sugar beet, carrots and parsnips store food. The object of doing this is to enable them to live more than one season.

(1) The roots of plants such as sugar beet, carrots and parsnips store food

................... them to live more than one season.

(2) Food .................... by the roots of plants such a sugar beet, carrots and

parsnips ................... them to live more than one season.

(d) We should add fertilizers or manures to the soil. Our aim in doing this is to encourage plant growth.

(1) We should add fertilizers or manures to the soil ........... plant growth.

(2) Fertilizers or manures …………… to the soil …………… plant growth.

(e) If a soil is very acid, we can spread lime on it. Our purpose in doing this is to correct the acidity.

(1) If a soil is very acid, we can spread lime on it ……………. the acidity.

(2) If a soil is very acid lime ……………. on it ……………… the acidity.

(3) Lime …………… on a soil which is very acid …………… the acidity.

Part 2. Instead of a to-infinitive we may use in order to or so as to + infinitive to express purpose.

Example

We need irrigation. The reason for this is to make up for lack of natural rainfall. ⇒ (1) Irrigation is needed in order to make up for lack of natural rainfall.

⇒ (2) Irrigation is needed so as to make up for lack of natural rainfall.

Join the following pairs of sentences together using the passive form of the verbs followed by (1) in order to and (2) so as to as in the example above.

(a) We may lay tile drains in or on the soil. The reason for this is to remove surplus water from the fields.

(b) We apply inorganic materials to the soil. Our object in doing this is to increase the supply of one or more of the essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potash.

(c) We add bulky materials to the soil like animal or green manure. Our aim in doing this is to improve the physical condition of the soil and to keep up its humus content.

(d) We should keep ditches as straight as possible and on an even gradient. The reason for this is to prevent them from silting up.

(e) A plant transforms water and carbon dioxide into sugar and starch in the presence of light. Its purpose in doing this is to provide the plant with food and energy for growth and reproduction.

3.4. Translate into Vietnamese

Transport systems

The type of transport system used for an irrigation project is often determined by the source of the water supply. If a surface water supply is used, a large canal or pipeline system is usually required to carry the water to the farms because the reservoir is likely to be distant from the point of use. If subsurface water drawn from wells is used, a much smaller transport system is needed, though canals or pipelines may be used. The transport system will depend as far as possible on gravity flow, supplemented if it is necessary by pumping. From the mains, water flows into branches, or laterals, and finally to distributors that serve groups of farms. Many auxiliary structures are required, including weirs (flow-diversion dams), sluices, and other types of dams. Canals are normally lined with concrete to prevent seepage losses, control weed growth, eliminate erosion hazards, and reduce maintenance. The most common type of concrete canal construction is by slip forming. In this type of construction, the canal is excavated to the exact cross section desired and the concrete placed on the earth sides and bottom.

Pipelines may be constructed of many types of material. The larger lines are usually concrete whereas laterals may be concrete, cement–asbestos, rigid plastic, aluminum, or steel. Although pipelines are more costly than open conduits, they do not require land after construction, suffer little evaporation loss, and are not troubled by algae growth.

Unit 4. THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Mục tiêu:

- Ghi nhớ được các từ vựng và thành ngữ liên quan đến nguồn gốc và các thành phần của đất.

- Sử dụng thành thạo cấu trúc so sánh và nối câu trong văn phong khoa học.

- Dịch được các bài viết khoa học liên quan.

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến nguồn gốc và các thành phần của đất.

- Phân tích cấu trúc ngữ pháp của câu; Thành thạo kỹ năng nghe, nói, viết.

- Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt

4.1. Reading text 1Soil is a residue composed of two main ingredients: mineral material and organic material. 2Organic material originates from dead plants and animals and materials other than this are derived from rocks of various kinds. 3These rocks are broken down into small particles by mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition. 4This breaking down process, known as weathering, may thus be both physical and chemical. 5When weathering processes are largely physical - by heat or wind, for instance - the composition of the soil is very similar to that of the parent rock. 6In arid regions, weathering is mostly by physical means. 7But in humid regions, chemical processes of weathering are equally important. 8In such regions, rock particles are affected by water which may contain carbonic or other weak acid. 9These acids dissolve some of the particles in the rocks. 10The mineral material that is left behind is insoluble. 11Consequently, the insoluble material residues in the soils have less resemblance to the original rocks. 12There are larger amounts of organic matter in the soil, too. 13The process of soil formation results in the development of the soil profile. 14This is made up of a succession of horizontal layers, or "horizons", of varying thickness, from the surface to the parent rock. 15Generally speaking, there are three distinct horizons, known as A, B and C. A is the top soil, which is coarse-grained, and dark in colour because of the presence of humus. 16B is known as the sub-soil which contains some of the products leached, or washed, out of the A horizon. 17The C horizon consists of parent material which has been weathered in the upper part, and unweathered rock below. 18Any sample of soil contains particle of different sizes. 19These have been divided into the following size groups: 20Soils range from pure clays to pure sands. 21Most of them contain various proportions of sand, silt and clay and these varying proportions make up a soil's textural class. 22The principle classes in order of increasing fineness of material are sand, loamy sand, loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, silt and clay.

23Any soil contains both mineral and organic matter. 24Clay particles are the most important of the mineral particles because they are the smallest. 25Smaller sized particles have a greater exposed surface area than larger sized particles. 26The smaller the size of a particle, the greater is its reactivity. 27That is to say, smaller sized particles can react or combine with water, nutrients and humus more easily than larger sized particles. 28Thus, a clay soil is more reactive than any other type of soil. 29Humus from decomposed organic matter is vital to a soil as it makes a heavy soil light. 30In addition, it helps to bind the mineral particles together in "crumbs".

VOCABULARY

Origin N Nguồn gốc

Residue N Chất bả, bả

Compose V Hình thành, tạo thành

Composition N Kết cấu, cấu tạo

Ingredient N Thành phần, thành tố

Originate (from) V Bắt nguồn, có nguồn gốc (từ)

Derive (from) V Xuất phát, bắt nguồn (từ)

Rock N Đá tảng

Particle N Hạt (đất, đá)

Mechanical Adj Thuộc cơ học

Disintegration N Sự tan rã

Decomposition N Sự phân ly, phân rã

Weathering N Sự phong hóa

Parent rock N Đá mẹ

Arid Adj Khô hạn

Humid Adj Ẩm ướt

Dissolve V Hòa tan

Insoluble Adj Không thể hòa tan được

Resemblance N Sự giống nhau, sự tương tự

Formation N Sự hình thành, sự tạo thành

Profile N Mẫu cắt, mặt cắt

Succession N Sự tiếp nối (lớp này đến lớp khác)

Horizon N Lớp (theo chiều ngang)

Horizontal Adj Thuộc chiều ngang

Layer N Lớp

Distinct Adj Phân biệt

Leach V Lọc qua (đất, quặng, tro)

Range V Sắp xếp

Pure Adj Không pha trộn, nguyên chất, tinh khiết

Clay N Sét (đất)

Sand N Cát

Loam N Đất mùn

Proportion N Tỷ lệ

Textural Adj Tính kết cấu, thuộc kết cấu

Fineness N Độ mịn

Exposed Adj Được phơi bày (tiếp xúc với không khí)

React V Phản ứng

Reactive Adj Tính phản ứng, dễ phản ứng

Reactivity N Khả năng phản ứng

Combine V Kết hợp

Bind V Dính, kết lại với nhau

Crumb N Cục, hòn

EXPRESSIONS

For instance Ví dụ

To be similar to Giống như, tương tự như

In order of +N/V-ing Theo thứ tự

That is to say Có nghĩa là

WORD FORMATION

(a) The prefix dis-, which means the negative, reverse, opposite of is used with a verb to form another which is opposite in meaning.

DIS + VERB = VERB

Like (v) thích  Dislike (v) không thích, ghét

Agree (v) đồng ý  Disagree (v) không đồng ý

Integrate (v) tích hợp, hoà trộn  Disintegrate (v) phân huỷ

Infect (v) lây nhiễm  Disinfect (v) không lây nhiễm

(b) The suffix -ness which refers a quality, state or character is used with adjectives to form nouns

ADJECTIVE + NESS = NOUN

Happy (adj) hạnh phúc  happiness (n) niềm hạnh phúc

Thick (adj) dày  thickness (n) độ dày

Fine (adj) mịn  fineness (n) độ mịn

Dry (adj) khô  dryness (n) độ khô hạn

VERB + IVE = ADJECTIVE

React (v) phản ứng  reactive (adj) có tính linh hoạt

Decide (v) quyết định  decisive (adj) có tính quyết định

Effect (v) hiệu quả  effective (adj) có hiệu quả

Create (v) tạo ra  creative (adj) có tính sáng tạo

(d) The suffix -ity, is used with an adjective to form a noun.

ADJECTIVE + ITY = NOUN

Crude (adj) thô lỗ  crudity (n) sự thô lỗ

Active (adj) tích cực  activity (n) hoạt động

Reactive (adj) tính phản ứng  reactivity (n) phản ứng

Able (adj) có khả năng  ability (n) khả năng

4.2. Comprehension activities

A-CONTEXTURAL REFERENCE

1. In Sentence 2, this refers to:

(a) mineral material (b) organic material

2. In Sentence 5, that refers to:

(a) heat or wind (b) the composition (c) the soil

3. In Sentence 8, such regions refers to:

(a) arid regions (b) humid regions

4. In Sentence 14, this refers to:

(a) the process of soil formation (b) the development of the soil profile (c) the soil profile it self 5. In Sentence 19, these refers to:

(a) particles (b) different sizes

6. In Sentence 21, them refers to: (a) soils

(b) pure clays (c) pure sands

(b) clay particles

7. In Sentence 24, they refers to: (a) mineral particles 8. In Sentence 30, it refers to:

(b) organic matter (c) humus

(a) a heavy soil B-REPHRASING

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the text which have the same meaning. 1. Material other than mineral material is derived from dead plants and animals. 2. Breaking down rocks into small particles is performed mostly by heat or wind in arid and semi-arid regions.

3. The remains of mineral materials that cannot be dissolved in water have little similarity to the parent rocks in humid regions. 4. The succession of horizontal layers in a soil is called the top soil, the sub-soil and the parent material. 5. Bacteria that can live without air help to break down dead organic material into humus.

C-SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

Soil is a residue composed of two main ingredients: mineral material and

Organic material originates from dead plants and animals and materials other

The process of soil formation results in the development of the soil profile. The mineral material that is left behind is insoluble. Clay particles are the most important of the mineral particles because they are

Decide whether the following are simple, complex or compound sentences. 1. organic material. 2. than this are derived from rocks of various kinds. 3. 4. 5. the smallest. 6. Any soil contains both mineral and organic matter.

D-COMPREHENSION CHECK.

Study the following statements carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the text. 1. 2. Mineral materials in soil are derived from various kinds of rocks. Physical and chemical weathering breaks down rocks into small particles.

The composition of the soil in arid regions has a close resemblance to that of

3. the parent rock.

4. Soils of humid regions are similar to the parent rock.

5. the The succession of soil horizons from the surface to the parent rock is known as soil profile.

6. The top soil which is called A is coarse-grained and dark in colour.

7. Particles smaller than silt are clay particles.

8. A clay loam contains particles of greater fineness than loamy sand.

Humus from decomposed organic matter helps to bind the mineral particles

9. together in 'crumbs'.

4.3. Language in use and grammar exercises

A-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STATEMENTS

Part 1. Exemplification and explanation

Study the following sentences:

(a) When weathering processes are largely physical, the composition of the soil is very similar to that of the parent rock. In arid regions weathering is mostly by physical means.

(b) The smaller the size of a particle, the greater is its reactivity. Smaller sized particles can react or combine with water, nutrients and humus more easily than larger sized particles.

The relationship between the sentences in (a) is one of exemplification. We can relate these sentences as follows:

When weathering processes are largely physical, the composition of the soil is very similar to that of the parent rock. For example (For instance) in arid regions, weathering is mostly by means of physical means.

OR When weathering processes are largely physical, the composition of the soil is very similar to that of the parent rock. In arid regions, for example (for instance), weathering is mostly by physical means

The relationship between the sentences in (b) is one of explanation. We can relate these sentences as follows:

The smaller the size of a particle is, the greater is its reactivity. That is to say (In other words), smaller sized particles can react or combine with water, nutrients and humus more easily than larger sized particles.

Relate the sentences indicated with the following expressions. Write out all the sentences. Replace and re-order the words in the sentences where necessary.

(a) 6+7: (i) however (ii) although

(b) 8,9,10+11: (i) as a result (ii) thus

(d) 26+27: (i) therefore (ii) hence

(e) 33: since

B-COMPARATIVE SENTENCES

We can make comparative statements using the following patterns:

(a) Particles of fine sand are coarser than particles of clay.

= Particles of fine sand are not as coarse as particles of clay.

(b) Transported soils are more common than sedentary soils in humid regions.

= Sedentary soils are less common than transported soils in humid regions.

The sentences in (a) use the comparative form of the adjective than, and not as + adjective + as. The sentences in (b) use more and less + adjective + than. Such adjectives are usually of two syllable or more. Note that adjectives ending in -y have comparative forms ending in -ier. For example: heavy-heavier; easy-easier; …

Compare the information presented in the tables and diagram below using the adjectives given. Use ADJ-er + than and not as ADJ as constructions to express the comparison.

1. TABLE 1

Soil particles Diameter (mm)

gravel 2.0 or more

coarse sand 2.0-0.2

fine sand 0.2-0.02

silt 0.02 -0.002

clay 0.002 or less

Compare the particles size of

(a) fine sand with silt (fine)

(b) clay with fine sand (coarse)

2. TABLE 2

4 6

7 Neutral strongly acid 5 Moderately acid 8 moderately alkaline 9 very alkaline

occur only in arid regions

most soils in humid regions when mot limed

The pH scale

Compare these soils in terms of more or less acidity or alkalinity.

(a) A soil with a pH value of 4.0 with a soil with a pH value of 6.5

(b) A soil with a pH value of 8.0 with a soil with a pH value of 9.8

3. TABLE 3

A: light sandy sand B: heavy clay soil

Gravel Sand Silt Clay Humus Other contents % 1.2 37.4 38.6 11.8 4.5 6.5 % 1.3 33.7 26.9 28.3 7.8 2.0

Compare the contents of these soils in term of:

(a) their sand content (b) their silt content

Begin the statements as follows:

a. The percentage of sand/silt etc. in a light sandy soil...

b. The sand/silt etc. content of a heavy clay soil...

c. A light sandy soil has...

4. TABLE 4

TOP SOIL SUB SOIL

Colour dark light

Particles sizes Coarse fine

living organisms Many few

elements for plant food Rich poor

Using the information in this table compare the characteristics of the top soil and the sub- soil in terms of

(a) colour: (i) The top soil is...

(ii) The sub-soil is...

(b) particles sizes: (i) The particle sizes of the top soil...

(ii) The particle sizes of the sub soil...

(ii) There are...... in the sub-soil......

(d) elements for plant food: (i) The top soil is......

(ii) The sub-soil is......

C-MAKING COMPARISONS BY INFERENCE

Part 1. Complete these sentences with the comparative form of an appropriate adjective, or more/less.

(a) soils show great variations in their sizes and arrangement of their constituent particles. A sandy soil has larger particles than a clay soil. A sandy soil loam has ………… particles than a clay loam.

(b) Soils also vary greatly in colour. A brightly coloured soil indicates a higher degree of oxidation. So, a red soil has been ………… oxidized than a black soil.

(c) As agriculture becomes more intensive, the soil may be modified by those who form it. A soil can be made less alkaline by adding sulphur. Any soil can be made ……… acid by adding lime.

(d) The sulphur content of certain soils in Orgegon, U.S.A., is less than 0.15%. On average in the U.S.A. soil contains ……… sulphur than those in Oregon.

(e) All the spaces, or pores, in between the solid soil particles are filled with air and water. The proportions of air and water which are contained in those pores are determined mainly by the size of the pores. The bigger the size of the pore, the more water the soil will contain. Thus, sandy soils contain larger pore because the particles spaces, but the total amount of pore space is................. are................... On the other hand, clay soils contain smaller pore spaces but the total amount of pore space is ……… because the particles are much .................... As a result, clay soils are generally ……… than sandy soils.

Part 2. Study the following short passages and complete the statements about them below.

(a) Granites and other igneous rocks are usually divided into acidic, intermediate and basic rocks depending on their silica content. This may vary between 40% for basalts, which are dark, glassy basic rocks, to twice that percentage in granites.

Write less or more in the spaces provided.

1. A granite rock contains …………. silica than a basic rock.

2. There is ………… silica in basalt than in granite.

3. Acid rocks contains ………… silica than basic rocks.

4. Basalt is not an acidic rock because it contains ………… than 75% silica.

(b) The colours of soils are closely related to their condition of aeration. In well- drained soils, iron compounds are oxidized to their ferric state, which is indicated by reds, yellows, and browns. When good drainage is absent, soils tend to be grey, often with greenish grey or mottled sub-soils.

Write less or more or better or poorer in the spaces provided.

1. A red soil is ................ drained than a grey soil.

2. A grey soil has been ............. oxidized than a yellow soil.

3. Greenish grey soils are ................... well drained than brown soils.

4. A red soil has .................. conditions of aeration than a grey soil.

5. Well drained soils are ..................... erated than badly drained soils.

6. Grey and greenish soils have .................... drainage than oxidized red soils.

7. There is ........................ air in a well-drained soil than in a badly-drained soil.

4.4. Translate into Vietnamese

In many upland areas the soil is very poor. However, local people have indigenous knowledge about their environment. They know what will grow and what will not grow. Many people in upland areas use Swidden farming. They clear a piece of forest, burn the vegetation and then plant crops for a few years.

Swidden farming is also called 'slash-and-bum' or 'shifting cultivation'. This type

of farming was once common in all areas. Now, it is found mainly in the uplands.

Most of the nutrients in a tropical forest are stored in the living vegetation, not in the soil. Burning the vegetation releases the majority of these nutrients into the soil. The fire kills weeds, pests and diseases. The ash improves the soil structure.

The yields in the first year or two are good. But soon, the nutrients are used up or washed away. After a few years of farming, the soil is exhausted, and pests and weeds threaten the crops.

Traditional farmers leave the land fallow - to rest for a while and recover. It takes

several years for the soil to recover so the land can again be cleared for crops.

Unit 5. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

Mục tiêu:

- Ghi nhớ và vận dụng được các từ vựng và thành ngữ về phân hữu cơ và phân vô cơ.

- Sử dụng thành thạo các loại câu điều kiện và mệnh đề tính từ trong văn phong tiếng Anh khoa học.

- Dịch được các bài viết liên quan đến chủ đề phân bón.

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến phân hữu cơ và phân vô cơ.

- Phân tích cấu trúc ngữ pháp của câu; Thành thạo kĩ năng nghe, nói, viết.

- Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt

5.1. Reading text 1Plant growth cannot continue if there is not a supply of minerals in the soil. 2The minerals bulky, organic materials which are called manures, and the more concentrated, inorganic chemical substances which are called fertilizers. 3Farmyard manure, or dung, consists of a mixture of litter, solid excreta and urine. 4It contains three most important substances for plant materials - nitrogen, phosphate and potash. 5Manure is added to the soil for several reasons. 6It improves the physical condition of the soil. 7It also keeps up the level of humus in the soil, and maintains the best conditions for the activities of soil organisms. 8Finally, it makes up for the plant nutrients which have been removed by crops or lost by leaching and soil erosion. 9Another kind of manure is green manure. 10This includes leguminous crops which grow quickly such as clover and lucerne. 11Such crops supply additional nitrogen as well as organic matters. 12A leguminous crop which is ploughed under will add as much nitrogen to the soil per acre as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure. 13Fertilizers are usually classified according to the particular food element which forms their main constituent. 14So, they may be grouped as nitrogenous fertilizers, phosphatic fertilizers and so on. 15The most commonly used fertilizer which contains nitrogen is ammonium sulphate, which is made from ammonia and sulphuric acids, and which contains 21% nitrogen. 16This element encourages rapid vegetative growth and gives plants a healthy green colour. 17Another valuable nitrogenous fertilizer is urea, which is made from ammonia and carbon dioxide, and contains 46% nitrogen. 18The most widely used phosphatic fertilizer, superphosphate, is made by treating mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. 19Phosphorus stimulates the formation of a plant's roots, and promotes fruit and seed production. 20Tropical soils are often very poor in this element. 21Finally, wherever high crop yields are expected, potash is used together with nitrogen and phosphorus. 22Potassium makes the plant tissues stronger. 23This helps the plant to withstand mechanical damage such as broken branches and torn leaves. 24In this way the entry of disease bearing agents, or pathogens, such as bacteria and fungi, is prevented. 25Potassium is important for all plants, but particularly

so for those that produce oil and starch or sugars. 26Oil Palm and tapioca plants require potassium in large amounts. 27It is usually supplied in the form of muriate of potash (Potassium chloride), which contains 50 to 60% potassium oxide (K2O) and sulphate of potash (Potassium sulphate). 28All plants are affected by the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. 29The less the nutrient supply, the more acid the soil becomes. 30Because mineral salts are basic, an acid soil has a low base content. 31Acidity makes some elements unavailable to plants. 32If a soil is very acid, with a pH value of less than 5.0, lime can be added to correct this acidity. 33The main constituent of lime is calcium, an important plant food. 34The presence of lime helps to make essential elements of plant food more easily available to plants. 35Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are more easily available in a well- limed than in an acid soil.

VOCABULARY

supply V/N Cung cấp. Nguồn cung cấp

available Adj Có thể dùng được (nói về vật)

bulky Adj Thô (chất liệu), cồng kềnh

organic Adj Hữu cơ

material N Chất liệu, nguyên liệu

manure N Phân hữu cơ, phân chuồng

concentrate V Cô đọng (hàm lượng cao)

substance N Chất, loại vật chất nào đó

mixture N Hỗn hợp

litter N Rác, đồ phế thải

solid Adj Ở thể rắn

excreta N Chất thải động vật (phân, nước tiểu)

improve V Cải thiện, Cải tiến

physical Adj Thuộc tính vật lí, lí tính

maintain V Duy trì, giữ

remove V Dời, chuyển, dọn sạch, loại bỏ

crop N Cây trồng; thời vụ

leaching N Sự lọc (chất lỏng qua đất)

erosion N Sự xói mòn (đất)

additional Adj Thêm, bổ sung

classify (into) V Xếp lớp, phân loại

element N Yếu tố, chất

constituent N Thành phần, thành tố

group N/V Nhóm/ Tạo nhóm

encourage V Cổ vũ, động viên

vegetative Adj Thuộc thực vật, cây cỏ

treat V Xử lý

stimulate V Kích hoạt, kích thích

promote V Đẩy mạnh, xúc tiến

tropical Adj Thuộc về nhiệt đới

tissue N Mô (động, thực vật)

withstand V Chịu đựng

mechanical Adj Thuộc về cơ học, có tính cơ

entry N Sự xâm nhập

pathogen N Nhân tố gây bệnh

fungi/fungus N Nấm (bệnh)

prevent V Ngăn chặn

starch N Tinh bột

lime N Vôi

EXPRESSIONS

to keep up tiếp tục, không ngừng

to make up for đền bù, bồi thường

as well as cũng vậy, cũng như

according to theo (ý kiến của ai)

to be poor in nghèo về một điều gì

to be rich in giàu, có nhiều vật gì

WORD FORMATION

We can make several adjectives by adding the suffix -able (or ible), which means that can be, fit to be to the verb base.

VERB + ABLE (IBLE) = ADJECTIVE

Eat (v) ăn eatable (adj) ăn / có thể ăn được

Reduce (v) giảm reducible (adj) giảm / có khả năng giảm

Believe (v) tin tưởng believable (adj) tin tưởng / đáng tin

Avail (v) có ích available (adj) sử dụng / sử dụng được

The suffix -able (or ible) can also be added to a noun to form adjective. In this way, it means showing qualities of

NOUN + ABLE (IBLE) = ADJECTIVE

Fashion (n) thời trang fashionable (adj) hợp thời trang

Response (n) phản ứng responsible (adj) trả lời, đáp ứng/có trách nhiệm

5.2. Comprehension activities

A-CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words and phrases with the idea or expression they refer to in the text.

Example:

Sentence 4, it

Farmyard manure contains three most important substances for plant materials - nitrogen, phosphate and potash.

1. Sentence 6, it 6. Sentence 16, this element

2. Sentence 8, it 7. Sentence 20, this element

3. Sentence 10, this 8. Sentence 23, this

4. Sentence11, such crops 9. Sentence 25, so

5. Sentence 14, they 10. Sentence 25, those

B-REPHRASING

Rewrite the following using other words and constructions from the text where possible.

1. A mixture of litter, solid excreta and urine improves the physical condition of the soil and makes up for lost plant nutrients.

2. The most commonly used fertilizer which contains nitrogen is made by combining ammonia with sulphuric acid.

3. When applied to the soil, the product which results from treating mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid promotes the production of fruit and seeds.

4. Broken branches and torn leaves allow pathogens such as bacteria and fungi to enter the plant and destroy it.

5. Essential elements of plant food are not readily available in a soil with a pH value of less than 5.0.

C-SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Study the following sentences. Focus on the underlined parts.

1. Plant growth cannot continue if there is not a supply of minerals in the soil.

2. A leguminous crop which is ploughed under will add as much nitrogen to the soil per

acre as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure.

3. Wherever high crop yields are expected, potash is used together with nitrogen and phosphorus.

4. Potassium is important to all plants but particularly so for those that produce oil and

starch or sugars.

5. Because mineral salts are basic, an acid soil has a low base content.

D- COMPREHENSION CHECK.

Study the following statement carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the reading text.

1. (…..) Manures are as concentrated as fertilizers.

2. (…..) Nitrogen, phosphate and potash are the three most important substances for plant

materials.

3. (…..) The level of humus in the soil can be kept up by adding manure.

4. (…..) Nitrogen is supplied to the soil by quick-growing leguminous crops.

5. (…..) Ammonium sulphate is a nitrogenous fertilizer.

6. (…..) Fruit and seeds will not be produced if a plant is not given a phosphatic fertilizer.

7. (…..) Help in withstanding mechanical damage prevents the entry of pathogens into plants.

5.3. Language in use and grammar exercises

A-CONCLUSIONS BASED ON OBSERVATIONS

Study the following information.

Mineral deficiencies

Soils are sometimes short of plant nutrients:

Symptom Diagnosis

plant stunted in growth, leaves yellowish in colour soil deficient in nitrogen

We can express this information as follows:

=> The plant is stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour. This shows

that the soil is deficient in nitrogen.

Refer to your texts if necessary and show which symptoms go with which diagnoses in the following table by writing conclusions based on observations as in the example above. Add the following kind of words where appropriate:

(a) definite and indefinite articles;

(b) forms of the verb be, and there is/are;

Symptom Diagnosis

sulphur deficiency in the soil (a) plant roots dying at tips, or remain short and stubby

(b) all parts of plant stunted in growth, with bluish- green leaves, poor fruit or seed development Plant short of element magnesium

Soil deficient in potassium (c) plant tissues weak, prone to attack by insects and fungus

(d) leaves losing their green colour, becoming yellow at tips, between veins Deficiency of phosphorus in soil

(e) new leaves turning yellow, roots and stems becoming long and woody Supply of calcium in soil is low

(f) young leaves developing chlorosis, veins remain green Amount of zinc in soil insufficient

suffering from (g) foliage if tiels crops, particularly lower lwaves, has intraveinal chlorosis Plant deficiency of iron

NOTE: There are other ways of expressing the relationship between observations and conclusions:

Conclusion the soil is deficient in nitrogen Observation The plant is stunted in growth and the leaves are pale yellowish in colour.

This suggests that..... This indicates that.... This is an indication that.... This is a sign that.... We may conclude that.... This means that.... So.... Therefore....

B-GENERALIZATIONS

If we draw a conclusion from a number of observations, we make a generalization.

- If a plant is stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour, then the

soil is deficient in nitrogen. OR If the plants are stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour, then the soil is deficient in nitrogen.

- When plants are stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour, then

the soil is deficient in nitrogen. OR When plants are stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour, then the soil is deficient in nitrogen. Change the observations and conclusions you have written in A into generalizations

C-RECOMMENDATIONS

Observations + conclusions and generalizations can be followed by recommendations which indicate what remedy can be taken. For example:

Remedy

nitrogenous Symptom plant stunted in growth, leaves yellowish in colour Diagnosis soil deficient in nitrogen

nitrogenous OBSERVATION The plant is stunted is growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour. CONCLUSION The soil is deficient in nitrogen add fertilizer such as urea. RECOMMENDATION Add fertilizer such as urea.

(1) observation + conclusion + recommendation

The plant is stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour. This shows that the soil is deficient in nitrogen. This deficiency can be corrected by adding a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea.

OR The plant is stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour. This shows that the soil is deficient in nitrogen. In order to correct this deficiency, a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea can be added.

(2) generalization + recommendation

If plants are stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour, then the soil is deficient in nitrogen. This deficiency can be corrected by adding a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea.

OR If plants are stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour, then the soil is deficient in nitrogen. In order to correct this deficiency, a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea can be added.

NOTE: Instead of correct/corrected we can use remedy/remedied.

Part 1. Add appropriate recommendations, as in the example above, to (1) the observations + conclusions you have made in A, and (2) the generalizations you have made in B.

(a) spread lime over the land

(b) apply a phosphatic fertilizer such as superphosphate

(d) add magnesium lime or sulphate of potash to the soil

(e) add sulphate of ammonia to the soil

(f) add ferric oxide to the soil

(g) spray zinc sulphate on the soil, or mix it with the fertilizer.

Part 2. A recommendation can be made stronger by using should instead of can.

Example:

The plant is stunted in growth and the leaves are yellowish in colour. This shows that the soil is deficient in nitrogen. This deficiency should be corrected by adding a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea.

Make some of the recommendations you have made in Part 1 above stronger by using should instead of can.

D-PREDICTIONS

The observations practised in A can also be used as predictions following a statement expressing a condition. A prediction is a statement about what will happen (i.e. in the future) if a situation occurs. Study the following information and the way it can be expressed.

Mineral deficiency Symptom

Nitrogen plants stunted in growth, leaves yellowish in colour

CONDITION PREDICTION

A soil is deficient nitrogen Plants will be stunted in growth and the leaves will be yellowish in colour.

=> If the soil is deficient in nitrogen, plants will be stunted in growth and the leaves will be yellowish in colour.

Such conditions + predictions can be followed by recommendations as in C above.

Example

If the soil is deficient in nitrogen, plants will be stunted in growth and the leaves will be yellowish in colour. This deficiency can/should be corrected/remedied by adding a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea.

If the soil is deficient in nitrogen, plants will be stunted in growth and the leaves will be yellowish in colour. In order to correct/remedy this deficiency, a nitrogenous fertilizer such as urea can/should be added.

Part 1. Express the following information as conditions + predictions followed by recommendations as in the example above. Add the following kinds of words where appropriate:

(a) definite and indefinite articles;

(b) forms of the verb be;

+ RECOMMENDATION CONDITION PREDICTION

Mineral deficiency Symptom of deficiency Remedy

1. calcium Spread lime over land

plant roots die at tips, or remain short spread lime over land and stubby

2. phosphorus apply phosphatic fertilizer e.g. superphosphate all parts of plants stunted in growth, with bluish green leaves, poor fruit or seed development.

3. potassium plant tissues weak, prone to attack by insects and fungus add potassic fertilizer like muriate of potash

4. magnesium add magnesium lime or sulphate of potash to soil leaves lose their green colour, become yellow at tips, between veins.

5. sulphur new leaves turn yellow, roots and stems become long and woody add sulphate of ammonia to soil

6. iron add ferric oxide to soil young leaves develop chlorosis, veins remain green

7. zinc spray zinc sulphate on soil or mix it with fertilizer foliage of field crops, particularly lower leaves, has intraveinal chlorosis

Part 2. There are two other ways of expressing a condition:

Examples

If there is a deficiency of nitrogen in the soil, plants will be...

If the supply of nitrogen in the soil is low, plant will be...

Rewrite some of the conditions + predictions followed by recommendations you have made in Part 1 expressing the condition in the ways shown in the examples above.

E-GRAMMAR EXERCISES

Part 1. Defining and non-defining relative clauses

1. Look at these diagrams

A + B = C

Nitrogenous Have nitrogen as main element Nitrogenous: have nitrogen as main element

Phosphatic Phosphatic: have phosphorus as main element Have phosphorus as main element

A. Some fertilizers are called nitrogenous fertilizers.

B. Some fertilizers have nitrogen as the main food element.

A + B = C. Some fertilizers which have nitrogen as the main food element are called nitrogenous fertilizers

Or Nitrogenous fertilizers are fertilizers which have nitrogen as the main food

element.

A. Some fertilizers are called phosphatic fertilizers.

B. Some fertilizers have phosphorus as the main food element.

A + B = C Some fertilizers which have phosphorus as the main food element are called phosphatic fertilizers.

Or Phosphatic fertilizers are fertilizers which have phosphorus as the main food

element.

Here the clauses in italics define the kind of fertilizer: They are defining relative clauses. Now look at these diagrams: (see the next page) here the clauses in italics give us additional information about the fertilizers. They are non-defining relative clauses. They are separated from the rest of the sentences by commas.

Fertilizers

A Nitrogenous Phosphatic

B Have nitrogen as main element Have phosphorus as main element

C Strengthen plant tissues Improve plant growth

A (+B) + C Nitrogenous fertilizers, which have nitrogen as the main food

element, strengthen plant tissues

Phosphatic fertilizers, which have phosphorus as the main food element, improve plant growth.

Combine each pair of sentences into a single sentence. Change the second sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the first sentence at the point indicated by the dots. In each case says whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining.

1. A leguminous crop …………… will add as much nitrogen as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure. A leguminous crop is ploughed under.

2. Solid excreta, or faeces, is the materials …………… The material has passed through the animal without being digested.

3. Ammonium sulphate …………… is the most commonly used nitrogenous fertilizers. Ammonium sulphate supplies the soil with nitrogen and sulphur.

4. When crude salt is purified it is called muriate of potash …………… Muriate of potash contains 50-60% K2O.

5. Another fertilizer .................. is urea. This fertilizer contains nitrogen.

6. A soil................ will contain quite a high proportion of calcium. Such a soil has a pH value of 6.5 or more.

7. The roots of leguminous crops such as clover bear nodules....................... The nodules contain bacteria ....................... These bacteria accumulate nitrogen from the air.

8. A compost is a mixture of partly broken-down material ………… This material is usually made up of leaves or grass cuttings.

9. Fungi ………… can be controlled by means of chemical substances ………… Fungi attack the aerial parts of the crop, the leaves, stems, etc. These chemical substances are known as fungicides.

10. In addition to the method of disease control ………… there are other methods of control ………… Disease control attacks the disease organism. These other methods are particularly important in crop production.

11. The quantity of fertilizer or manure ………… depends on the fertility of the soil and the nutrients ………… Fertilizer or manure is required for rice cultivation. The nutrients are released from the rotted weeds and stubble ………… The weeds and the stubble are ploughed in during cultivation.

12. The type and amount of fertilizer required also depends on the variety of rice used, and certain varieties …………, …………, will often respond better to high levels of fertilizer than late maturing varieties. Certain varieties have short erect leaves. These varieties include many of the early maturing varieties. (omit certain)

Part 2. Short-form relative clauses

Relative clauses often appear in a shortened form.

(1) In clauses which begin which has or which have, with may be used instead.

Examples:

Rice varieties which have short erect leaves respond well to high levels of fertilizer.

 Rice varieties with short erect leaves respond well to high levels of fertilizer.

(2) In clauses in which the verb is active, the -ing form of the verb may be used instead.

Examples:

Rice varieties which have short erect leaves respond well to high levels of fertilizer.

 Rice varieties having short erect leaves respond well to high levels of fertilizer.

The most commonly used fertilizer which contains nitrogen is ammonium sulphate.

 The most commonly used fertilizer containing nitrogen is ammonium sulphate.

(3) In clauses in which the verb is passive, the relative pronoun and the form of verb to be can be omitted.

Examples:

The quantity of fertilizer or manure which is required for rice cultivation partly depends on the variety of rice which is used.

 The quantity of fertilizer or manure required for rice cultivation partly depends on the variety of rice used.

(4) In clauses in which the relative pronoun is followed by a form of the verb to be and an adjective or a noun, the relative pronoun and the form of the verb to be can be omitted.

Examples:

Common nitrogen fertilizers which are suitable for rice are ammonium sulphate and urea.

 Common nitrogen fertilizers suitable for rice are ammonium sulphate and urea.

Urea, which is the substance in human and animal urine, is a nitrogenous fertilizer.

 Urea, the substance in human and animal urine, is a nitrogenous fertilizer.

Combine each pair of sentences into a single sentence. Change the second sentence into a short-form relative clause, using one of the ways shown above, and insert it into the first sentence at the point indicated by the dots. In each case states whether the resulting construction is defining or non-defining.

Example

Muriate of potash is a form of potash ………… This form of potash is used in many compound fertilizers.

= Muriate of potash is a form of potash used in many compound fertilizers.

1. Viruses are very small organisms ………… They are transmitted by means of insects.

2. Nematodes are small worms in the soil that enter plant roots ………… They cause

serious losses in some crops, particularly in the tropics.

3. Compound fertilizers are multiple nutrient materials ………… They supply two or

three plant nutrients simultaneously.

4. It is essential to understand the materials ………… The materials are available to the

farmer to maintain the supply of minerals in the soil.

5. Some fertilizers ………… should be applied by means of a drill in 1-2" wide bands on either side of a row of seeds at a depth of 4-6". Some fertilizers contain soluble phosphates. (omit some)

6. Fungi are microscopic organisms ………… These organisms produce thread-like growths ………… These growths are known as hyphae.

7. The types of disease organisms ………… are fungi and bacteria. They are found in

the soil ………… They attack the roots of plants and they cause root rots and wilt.

8. Christmas Island Rock Phosphate, ………… also contains calcium. This type of phosphate the most popular phosphorus-containing fertilizer. Calcium is essential for growing crops in the wet tropics.

9. Mixed fertilizers …………usually meet nutrients deficiencies in a more balanced manner and require less labour to apply than straight fertilizers ………… Mixed fertilizers contain all the tree principal nutrients (N, P and K). Straight fertilizers are used separately.

10. A soil ………… would contain quite a high proportion of calcium. However, a soil ………… would be considered strongly acid. High acidity means low calcium, magnesium and potassium, ………… A soil has a pH value of 6.5 or more. A soil has a pH value ………… The value is lower than 5.

Calcium, magnesium and potassium are all important plant foods.

5.4. Translate into Vietnamese

The crop removes large quantities of plant nutrients from the soil, particularly the removal of NPK nutrients at the present level of crop production has been estimated at 125 kg/ha/annum whereas the annual addition is not more than 75 kg resulting in the depletion of the nutrient reserve of the soil.

Using too many chemical fertilizers and not using enough natural, organic sources of nutrients can damage the soil and make it hard for farmers to grow crops consistently. This can lead to soil health problems.

Soil organic matter is the key to soil fertility and productivity. In the absence of organic matter, the soil is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay. Organic matter makes the soil healthier and helps living organisms grow. Even though we know how helpful organic matter is for the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil, it is not used enough in modern farming.

The regular recycling of organic waste to the soil is the best way to keep the right amount of organic matter in the soil. Recycling organic matter in the soil should become a regular feature of modern agriculture. In traditional agriculture, followed over generations in India, the use of plant and animal wastes as a source of plant nutrients was the accepted practice. Using organic manures and green manure crops are not considered important enough in modern farming practices.

Unit 6. THE CONTROL OF WEEDS AND PLANT DISEASES

Mục tiêu:

- Ghi nhớ và vận dụng được các từ vựng và thành ngữ liên quan đến kiểm soát cây trồng và bệnh trên cây trồng.

- Vận dụng được cách hình thành danh từ kép vào thực tế viết và nói tiếng Anh.

- Dịch được các bài viết tiếng Anh chuyên ngành liên quan.

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến kiểm soát cây trồng và bệnh trên cây trồng

- Phân tích cấu trúc ngữ pháp của câu; Thành thạo kĩ năng nghe, nói, viết.

- Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt

6.1. Reading text 1In crop production, the control of weeds, diseases and pets is essential to obtain high yields. 2All three may be controlled by sound farm practices. 3These include the choice of clean seed and the growing of varieties of crop which can resist disease. 4They also include careful cultivation, both pre-sowing and post-sowing, and the use of chemicals. 5Weeds reduce crop yields on account of the fact that they compete with crops for water, soil nutrients and light. 6Thay also make harvesting difficult. 7Most weeds, which grow quickly and spread far, are aggressive and invasive and so are difficult to get rid of. 8One recommended way of eradicating many persistent weeds is first to plough up the roots and underground parts of the plant. 9Then the soil may be cultivated lightly, or rotated, on one or more occasions after the first ploughing. 10The principle reason for cultivating the soil is to kill weeds. 11Weeds may also be killed by means of chemicals which have the collective name of herbicides. 12Weeds- killers are of two basic types: selective and non-selective. 13The former remove certain weeds from certain crops. 14For rice we can spray the herbicides 2:4 D or MCPA over the whole crop at a low concentration (1/2 to 1 lb. per arce). 15The rice will not be affected, but many of the rice weeds will be killed. 16Non-selective weed killers may be used for removing all vegetation e.g. as brush killers. 17They must be used extremely carefully for the simple reason that they will eradicate all plants on contact - which includes the crop itself. 18They are usually used before sowing or before the emergence of the crop itself. 19Plant disease are caused by organisms which use the crop plant as a ‘host’. 20These are mainy micro-organisms e.g fungi, bacteria and viruses. 21These parasitic micro- organisms live off the food nutrients in the tissue cells of the plants. 22They frequently kill the host tissues, and either the whole plant or a part of it is damaged and killed. 23Micro-organisms are reproduced and spread by minute bodies such as spores, fungi, bacteria. 24Wind, water, diseased plants, cuttings and tubers, animals, men and insects are some of the means whereby disease is disseminated.

25It is very difficult to kill the fungi and bacteria, or to make the virus which is inside the host plant inactive. 26But the evolution of plant varieties which can resist disease has completely changed methods of disease control. 27A number of varieties has been evolved and is now available to farmers. 28So the control of plant disease has increasingly become a matter of prevention. 29Fungi, which attack the aerial parts of the crop, can be controlled by means of fungicides. 30These are sprayed or dusted onto the plant surface. 31The should be applied before the plant is seriously damaged. 32Sometimes spray and dust is applied whether disease is present or not. 33In any case, it is necessary to examine crops frequently for signs of disease. 34Soil-borne diseases are much more difficult to control. 35There are various way of treating the soil. 36One way is to use chemicals that easily change into a gas or vapour, which enter the soil and kill harmful organisms. 37The soil is covered with a polythene sheet and the volatile chemical is injected into the soil. 38After about 24 hours, the sheet is removed and the soil is allowed to air for a few days before use.

VOCABULAR

Production N Sự sản xuất, việc sản xuất

Control N&V Sự điều chỉnh,

Weed N Cỏ dại

Disease N Bệnh

Pest N Sâu bọ gây bệnh cây

YieldN Năng suất

Sound Adj Vững mạnh, có hiệu quả

Practice N Biện pháp thực tiễn

Choice N Sự lựa chọn

Variety N Giống, loại

Resist V Kháng cự, đề kháng

Cultivation N Việc canh tác

Sow V Gieo (hạt)

Chemical N Hoá chất

Fact N Sự thật, thực tế

Compete (with) V Đua tranh, cạnh tranh, giành

Harvesting N Việc thu hoạch

Aggressive Adj Hung hăng, mạnh mẽ

Invasive Adj Có xu hướng lan rộng, gây hại, lan tràn

Recommend V Đề nghị, giới thiệu

Eradicate V Trừ tiệt, thủ tiêu

Persistent Adj Kiên trì, bền bỉ, lâu dài

Rotate V Luân canh

Principle Adj Chính, chủ yếu

Collective Adj Chung, tập thể

Herbicide N Thuốc trừ cỏ

Selective Adj Có lựa chọn

Vegetation N Cây cối, thực vật

Spray V Phun (thuốc)

Host N Vật chủ

Parasitic Adj Kí sinh

Live off V Sống nhờ

Reproduce V Sinh sản, tái sản xuất

Minute Adj Rất nhỏ

Spore N Bào tử

Disseminate V Gieo rắc rộng rãi, phổ biến

Inactive Adj Không hoạt động

Evolve V Phát triển một cách tự nhiên tiến hoá

Evolution N Sự phát triển tự nhiên, sự tiến hoá

Prevention N Sự phòng chống

Attack V Tấn công

Aerial Adj Trong không khí, tiếp xúc với không khí

Dust V Rải lên, phủ lên (một lớp bột)

Apply V Ứng dụng, áp dụng

Sign N Dấu hiệu, dấu vết

Soil-borne Adj Có nguồn gốc từ đất, do đất sinh ra

Vapour N Hơi nước

Harmful Adj Có hại, gây hại

Cover V Che phủ, bọc

Polythene N

Politen. Nhựa tổng hợp dưới dạng tấm mỏng dùng để chống thấm

Volatile Adj Dễ bay hơi

Inject V Tiêm vào, bơm vào

EXPRESSIONS

Có liên quan, có tiếp xúc On contact

Do cái gì, vì lí do gì On account of

Compete with SO for sth Tranh của ai cái gì

To get rid of Từ bỏ

By means of Bằng cách, bằng phương tiện

For the reason that Bởi lí do rằng

To be necessary to+infinitive Cần phải làm điều gì

WORD FORMATION

Several adjectives are formed by adding the suffix -ent (or -ant) into verbs.

VERB + ENT (or ANT) = ADJECTIVE

Resist (v) kháng cự Resistant (adj) có sức kháng cự, đề kháng

Persist (v) kiên trì, cố chấp Persistent (adj) kiên trì, dai dẳng

Differ (v) khác nhau Different (adj) khác biệt, khác nhau

These suffixes can also be used to form nouns from verbs:

VERB + ENT (or ANT) = NOUN

Assist (v) giúp đỡ, hỗ trợ Assistant (n) người giúp việc, trợ lý

Apply (v) xin việc làm Applicant (n) người nộp đơn xin việc

Disinfect (v) khử trùng, khử độc Disinfectant (n) chất tẩy uế

6.2. Comprehension activities

A-CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words and phrases with the idea or expression they refer to in the text

1. Sentence 2, all three 6. Sentence 13, the former

2. Sentence 3, these 7. Sentence 17, they … they

3. Sentence 4, they 8. Sentence 20, these

4. Sentence 5, they 9. Sentence 22, they

5. Sentence 6, they 10. Sentence 27, varieties

11. Sentence 31, they

B-REPHRASING

Rewrite the following using other words and constructions from the text where possible.

1. Weeds which grow quickly and spread far are difficult to get rid of.

2. A way which is frequently advised to eradicate weeds which last a long time is to plough first and then cultivate lightly.

3. Chemicals which remove certain weeds from certain crops are used in rice cultivation, when they are spayed over the whole crop at low concentration.

4. Organisms which are microscopic in size and use the crop plant as a 'host' are frequently the cause of a whole crop being killed.

5. Plant diseases are spread in a variety of ways - by wind, water, animals, men and insects, for instance.

6. In order to control soil-borne diseases, a chemical that easily changes into a gas or vapour can be injected into the soil under a polythene sheet.

C-SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Classify the following sentences.

1. In crop production, the control of weeds, diseases and pests is essential to obtain high yields.

2. Weeds reduce crop yields on account of the fact that they compete with crops for water, soil nutrients and light.

3. Weeds may also be killed by means of chemicals which have the collective name of herbicides.

4. The rice will not be affected, but many of the rice weeds will be killed.

5. They must be used extremely carefully for the simple reason that they will eradicate all plants on contact - which includes the crop itself.

6. Parasitic micro-organisms frequently kill the host tissues, and either the whole plant or a part of it is damaged and killed.

7. It is very difficult to kill the fungi and bacteria, or to make the virus which is inside the host plant inactive.

8. The soil is covered with a polythene sheet and the volatile chemical is injected into the soil.

9. Soil-borne diseases are much more difficult to control.

D-COMPREHENSION CHECK

Study the following statement carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the reading text.

1. …… If weeds, diseases and pests are well controlled, high yields will be obtained.

2. …… One sound farm practice is the choice of disease resistant crop varieties.

3. …… Weeds supply crops with water, soil nutrients and light.

4. …… Aggressive and invasive weeds cannot be eradicated.

5. …… People cultivate the soil mainly to kill weeds.

6. …… Selective weed killers do not affect the crop which is being grown.

7. …… Non-selective weed-killers eradicate certain kinds of weeds.

8. …… By using the plant as 'host', bacteria cause plant diseases.

9. …… Plants are damaged and killed because micro-organisms live off the tissue cells of the plants.

10. …… Micro-organisms cannot be reproduced. 11. …… A number of disease resistant plant varieties have been evolved. 12. …… We cannot control soil-borne diseases.

6.3. Lanuage in use and grammar excercises

A-THE IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF DISEASES

Part 1. Crop diseases may be identified by name and by the organism that causes the disease. EXAMPLE

Crop Rice Name of disease Blast Causal organism Fungus: Pyricularia oryzae

We can make statements of identification as follows:

Blast in rice is a fungus disease (which is) caused by the organism Pyricularia

oryzae. OR The fungal organism Pyricularia oryzae causes/is the cause of blast in rice. OR Pyricularia oryzae is a fungal organism which causes blast in rice. OR The cause of blast in rice is the fungus / fungal organism Pyricularia oryzae. Make statements of identification about the following plant diseases in the ways shown above.

Crop Name of disease Causal organism

1. Maize 2. Cotton 3. Cotton Fungus: Ustilago zeae Virus Bacteria: Xanthomas malvacearum

4. Sugar 5. Sweet potatoes 6. Groundnuts 7. Rice Smut Stenosis, or leaf curl Black arm, or angular leaf spot Red spot black rot Rosette disease Bacterial wilt Fungus: Colletotrichum falcatum Fungus: Ceratostonmella fimbriata Virus Bacteria: Pseudomonas solanaceum

Part 2. We can make statement describing the symptoms of particular diseases. EXAMPLE

Crop Rice Name of disease Causal organism Blast

Fungus: Pyricularia oryzae

Symptoms Brown longitudinal spots on leaves. Spots on stem and grain darker in colour

The statement describing the disease follows the statement identifying it. EXAMPLES

Blast in rice is a fungus disease caused by the organism Pyricularia oryzae. Brown longitudinal spots appear on the leaves. The spots on the stem and grain are darker in colour. OR The fungal organism Pyricularia oryzae is the cause of blast in rice. Brown longitudinal spots can be seen on the leaves. The spots on the stem and grain are darker in colour. Using the information in the table on the next page, add statements describing the symptoms of the disease to the statement of identification you make in Part 1. Add the following kinds of words, where appropriate: (a) definite and indefinite articles;

(b) forms of the verb be and appear, can be seen;

DESCRIPTION IDENTIFICATIO N

Crop Name of disease Causal organism Symptoms

1. Maize Smut Ustilago Fungus: zeae

Soft tumours on all parts of plant, mostly cob. Tumours, when mature, split and release black dusty mass of spores

2. Cotton Virus Stenosis, or leaf curl

Leaves of affected plant become crinkled and deformed. Yellow or pink discoloration.

3. Cotton Black arm, or angular leaf spot Bacteria: Xanthomas malvacearum

All above ground parts of plant attacked. Angular spots on leaves and branches turn dark brown with reddish margin when old.

4. Sugar Red spot

Fungus: Colletotrichum falcatum Leaves wither, cane shrinks. Black specks on shriveled rind. Split, cane gives sour smell.

Sweet black rot 5. potatoes Fungus: Ceratostonmella fimbriata

tubers attacked. Foliage turns yellow and sickly. Black cankers on portion underground. Grey-black, circular, depressed spots on fleshy roots.

Rosette disease Virus

6. Groundnut s Circular spots on both sides of leaves. Spots on upper surface dark brown with yellow halo.

7. Rice Bacterial wilt Lower leaves wilt, and eventually die Bacteria: Pseudomonas solanaceum

B. RECOMMENDATIONS

After identifying the disease and describing it, we can make statements recommending particular control measures of ways of avoiding the disease.

EXAMPLE

Crop Symptoms Control measures

Name of disease Causal organism

Rice Blast

Fungus: Pyricularia oryzae

longitudinal Brown spots on leaves. Spots on stem and grain darker in colour Spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture. Also/Or grow resistant varieties

We can express recommendations in various ways:

As a control measure, the crop should be sprayed with 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Inaddition, /Alternately, to avoid the disease, resistant crop varieties should be grown.

OR One control measure is to spray with 1% bordeaux mixture. In addition, / Alternately, resistant crop varieties should be grown.

OR Control measures for this disease include spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture, and growing resistant crop varieties.

Using the information in the table below, add statements recommending control measures or ways of avoiding the disease, a in the example above, to the statements of identification and description you made in Part 2 of exercise A. In addition to the expressions printed in italics in the examples above, add definite and indefinite articles.

EXAMPLE

Blast in rice is a fungus disease caused by the organism Pyricularia oryzae. In this disease, brown longitudinal spots appear on the leaves. The spots on the stem and grain are darker in colour. As a control measure, the crop should be sprayed with 1% Bordeaux mixture. To avoid the disease, resistant crop varieties should be grown.

OR The fungal organism Pyricularia oryzae is the cause of blast in rice. In this disease, brown longitudinal spots can be seen on the leaves. The spots on the stem and grain are darker in colour. One control measure is to spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture. Alternately, resistant crop varieties should be grown.

OR The fungal organism Pyricularia oryzae causes blast in rice. In this disease, brown longitudinal spots can be seen on the leaves. The spots on the stem and grain are darker in colour. Control measures for this disease include spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture, and growing resistant crop varieties.

DESCRIPTION

RECOMMENDATION

IDENTIFICATI ON

Study the following table and write different paragraphs, as in the examples above, identifying and describing the disease and recommending control measures or ways to avoid it. Add any other words and phrases which are necessary, e.g. definite and indefinite articles, the verb to be etc.

Crop Symptoms Control measure

Name of disease Causal organism

Smut Practise crop rotation

1. Maize Fungus: Ustilago zeae Soft tumours on all parts of plant, and sanitation. Or

grow resistant

cob. mostly Tumours, when mature, split and release black dusty mass of spores

seed with

2. Cotton

Bacteria: Xanthomas malvacearum

Black arm, or angular leaf spot

Treat organo-mecurials (Agroson 5W) before sowing. Also destroy all cotton plant debris

All above ground plant parts of attacked. Angular spots on leaves and branches turn dark brown with reddish margin when old.

3. Sugar Red spot Fungus:

Colletotrichum falcatum

Plant clean cuttings dipped in 5% formalin. Or, grow resistant varieties.

Leaves wither, cane shrinks. Black specks on shriveled rind. Split, cane gives sour smell.

black rot Fungus:

4. Sweet potatoes Ceratostonmell a fimbriata

Treat seed tubers in chloride mercuric solution, or 2.1/2 borax solution. Also carefully store seed tubers, and rotate seed-bed

Tubers attacked. Foliage turns yellow and sickly. Black cankers on portion underground. Grey- circular, black, depressed spots on fleshy roots.

Virus

Rosette disease

5. Ground -nuts

Plant seeds early and close. Also, use clean seed, and uproor and burn infected plants

Circular spots on both sides of leaves. Spots on upper surface dark brown with yellow halo.

C-GRAMMAR EXERCISE

EXERCISE 1. Noun + Noun constructions

An adjective is often used to modify another noun. For example:

nitrogenous fertilizer volatile chemical

selective weed-killer leguminous crop

parasitic micro-organisms organic material

Many different kinds of relationship are possible in such noun + noun constructions. Study the following carefully:

A made from B: silage made from a rabble crop = arable silage

A caused by B: a disease which is caused by a fungus = fungus disease

A used for B: tiles used for drainage = drainage tiles

fans used for winnowing = winnowing fans

A in/on B: poisons which act in the stomach of a pest = stomach poisons

A part of B: the sap of the cell = cell sap

A shaped like B: a root shaped like a club = club root

A operated by B: a mill which is operated by wind = wind mill

A which does B: a substance which kills weeds = weed-killer

a machine which seeds rice = rice seeder

Notice that we can often write a simple definition of each noun + noun compound by means of a statement which makes the relationship between the nouns clear.

EXAMPLE

Arable silage is silage (which is) made from an arable crop.

A fungus disease is a disease (which is) caused by a fungus.

Drainage tiles are tiles which are used for drainage of land.

Stomach poisons are poisons which act in the stomach of a pest.

Now write statements which show the full meaning of the following of the following noun + noun compounds. If possible, write definition.

1. farm implements 11. fodder crops 21. poultry manure

2. plantation crops 12. maize shelter 22. sugar cane crusher

3. asbestos sheet 13. soil humus 23. earth worms

4. leaf cell 14. grinding mill 24. spring wheat

5. root hairs 15. rice huller 25. grazing land

6. virus disease 16. herring-bone system 26. forage crops

7. dusting equipment 17. lime nodules 27. wire netting

8. soil injector 18. threshing machine 28. buffalo plough

9. farmyard manure 19. grain thresher 29. soil water

10. cattle dung 20. seed drill 30. leaf blade

EXERCISE B. Particle + noun constructions

Apart from adjective +noun and noun + noun phrases, there are a large number of modifiers which are made up of a verb stem + suffix. Two important classes of modifier are as follows.

Modifiers formed from verbs by adding -ing (present participles). These

modifiers are usually active in meaning.

EXAMPLES

Processing machine = machines which process something

threshing implements - implements which thresh some crop

Modifiers formed form verbs by using the past form (e.g. transported, made,

known etc.) These modifiers are usually passive in meaning.

EXAMPLES

ground chalk = chalk which has been ground (to a powder)

transported soil = soil which has been Transported

is being

Now write and complete the sentences by filling in the blanks with a past participle modifier or a present participle modifier. Form each modifier from one of the verbs in this list.

fix divide draw spay

cultivate lift lime dust

conduct operate bear compose

recommend

1. Leguminous plants have nitrogen ………… bacteria growing on their roots, which extract nitrogen from the soil air, use what they need themselves, and pass on the rest to the host plant.

2. For carrying out heavy jobs which need a lot of power, such as ploughing or land reclamation, tractor ………… implements are superior in every way to ………… or bullock ………… implements.

3. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are more easily available to plants in a well- ………… soil than in a soil which has a low pH value and is, therefore, acid

4. If the mid-rib of a leaf is examined under a microscope, it will be seen to consist of water and food ………… tissues called xylem and phloem respectively.

5. Due to the fact that grasslands have diminished in many countries in recent years ………… fodder crops have become increasingly important, particularly for diary cattle.

6. The Persian Wheel, or rahet, one of the most common of water-.………… appliances, consists of a series of baskets on an endless belt which moves on a vertical wheel or drum.

7. In the case of soil-………… diseases where the fungus living in the soil attacks the seeds or seedlings, soil disinfectants or sterilizers such as formaldehyde or formasan are helpful in destroying the fungus

8. One of the ………… methods of eradicating the paddy stem borer is dipping the seedlings in 0.1% DDT suspension before transplanting.

9. As most vegetable crops are usually affected by a variety of fungus and virus diseases and a number of insect pests, it is better for the farmer to equip himself with the necessary ………… and ………… machines.

10. ………… manure, or compost, can be made from different sorts of waste material including padi-straw, grass clippings, sugar-cane refuse, etc.

6.4. Translate into Vietnamese

Control of plant parasitic nematodes has been largely accomplished through the use of chemical nematocides, many of which have now been shown to be harmful to the environment and have been withdrawn from use. Biological control measures using resistant plant varieties and trap crops have been effective in some cases. A trap crop can stimulate the hatching of nematode eggs but does not support nematode growth, thus reducing nematode populations to harmless levels.

More information is needed on the basic biology of nematodes to provide directed approaches to their control, using less toxic, target-specific substances. This might include the use of the hatching stimulants that are apparently produced by plants and trigger nemarode eggs to hatch. The growing nematodes then perish in the absence of a suitable host plant. Studies of nemarode pheromones and hormones could lead to methods for controlling reproduction or development.

Unit 7. PLANT CELL CULTURE

Mục tiêu:

- Ghi nhớ và vận dụng được các từ vựng và thành ngữ liên quan đến nuôi cấy mô tế bào thực vật.

- Sử dụng thành thạo các thì tiếng Anh trong viết và nói.

- Dịch được các bài viết khoa học liên quan.

Chuẩn đầu ra:

- Thuộc từ vựng và các thành ngữ liên quan đến nuôi cấy mô tế bào thực vật.

- Phân tích cấu trúc ngữ pháp của câu; Thành thạo kĩ năng nghe, nói, viết.

- Dịch được bài text sang tiếng Việt

7.1. Reading text 1The techniques of plant, organ, tissue and cell culture have evolved since the beginning of this century. 2These techniques, combined with recent advances in developmental, cellular and molecular genetics, and using conventional plant breeding, have had a significant impact on agriculture horticulture and forestry. 3There has also been a growing interest in the use of suspension and immobilized plant cell cultures for the production of fine chemicals and some specific biotransformation reactions. 4A broad specification of types aseptic cultures of plant origin includes plant cultures (i.e. the culture of seedlings or larger plants), organ cultures (i.e. root tips, stem tips, leaf primordia, primordia or immature parts of flowers, immature embryos), tissue or callus cultures (i.e. tissues resulting from the proliferation of pieces of plant organs) and suspension cultures (i.e. isolated cells or cell aggregates growing dispersed in liquid media).

CALLUS AND SUSPENSION CULTURES 5The initiation of callus and suspension cultures is illustrated schematically as follows: Whole plant → Plant organ→ Sterilization → Explant →→ Callus initiation on solid medium →Callus subculture →→→ suspension culture. 6The first step is the sterilization of the plant organ from which an explant, which is a small piece of plant tissue, is to be taken. 7If the explant is from a seedling, it is usually more convenient to sterilize the seed and to allow it to germinate under aseptic conditions. 8At a suitable stage an appropriate organ (cotyledon, hypocotyl or root) can be excised, and the explant transferred to a solid nutrient medium. 9If the explants to be taken from a mature organ such as a root, tuber, leaf or a woody stem segment, the whole organ or segment is surface sterilized before excising from the undamaged or uncontaminated tissues. 10After being transplanted to solid medium the explant is kept either in the dark or at low illumination. 11Proliferation at the cut ends gives rise to callus cultures. 12These are defined as tissues that proliferate in a disorganized manner yielding an amorphous mass with no regular form.

13A callus takes three to eight weeks to reach a suitable size so that it can be subcultured by transferring small amounts (50-100 mg) to fresh medium.

IMPROVEMENT OF CROPS BY CELL CULTURE 14Applied studies for the improvement of rice plants are specially important in rice tissue culture. 15To improve rice productivity, a new agronomical technique that uses tissue culture is being developed. 16Technologically, we can culture cells in liquid medium in shaking flash then plate them on specific medium in petri dishes where only the tolerant or desired cells will survive. 17This eliminates the need of large field areas for sexual cross breeding. 18This technique saves time and space, and much less labor is required than with conventional crosses. 19Until 10 years ago there had been very little success in inducing cereal callus and in maintaining good growth. 20The problem of inducing callus used was solved by using higher concentration of auxins in media for cereals than are used fro dicotyledonous material. 21Now we realize that callus induction from cereals is easy when there are high concentrations of auxin in the media. 22Studies of rice tissue culture have been going on in Japan since the 1960s. 23Furuhashi and Yatazawa first succeeded in callus induction using rice stem nodes. 24They emphasized that yeast extract was an essential factor. 25Yamada induced rice calluses and subsequently cultured them on a synthetic medium. 26They reported that IAA, as well as 2,4-D, could induce callus from the roots and nodes of shoots. 27Furthermore, they succeeded in inducing the redifferentiation of shoots as well as roots, and they regenerated whole plants from rice calluses. 28Maeda also has been studying callus formation from young seedlings on a medium containing 2,4-D and yeast extract.

PLANT MATERIAL 29Almost any part of a rice plant can be used as the material for callus induction; but, seeds are a particularly common and easy material to use. 30If one wants to induce callus from specific tissue, i.e. the nodes of shoots or root tips, he first must grow a sterilized plantlet in a flash with agar medium. 31From this plantlet, grown under sterilized conditions, a segment of the stem with a node(s) or of a root is then inoculated on the agar medium fro callus induction. 32It is very difficult to sterilize any part of the tissue from a plant grown under natural conditions. 33Although it may seem to be more complicated to grow a plant from sterilized seeds than to sterilize the specific tissue needed from a plant grown under natural conditions, in term of the efficiency of inducing callus and the ease of the procedure, the former is a much better method. 34The preparation of rice seeds is the same for both callus induction from seeds and seed germination under sterilized conditions: • 35Collect good seeds of rice and remove the hulls. • 36Transfer the brown rice grains to 99% ethanol in a beaker and shake it for one

minute to remove the wax from the surface of the grains.

• 37Discard the alcohol and cover the top of this beaker with a double layer of

gauze. Secure this covering with a rubber band.

• 38Put the beaker under running water, and wash the grains for 2-10 hrs.

(Washing the material with running water is the basic procedure for sterilization).

• 39Place the grains in sterilized petri dishes. Submerge the grains in 70% alcohol

for 5 minutes.

• 40Discard the alcohol and add 3% sodium hypochlorite (commercial bleach is

mainly time. (Leave the dish for no longer than 1hrs or the rice seeds will be killed)

• 41Rinse the grains in sterile, distilled water 3 times. • 42Place the seeds on agar medium if you desire young plantlets, or place them

on agar medium containing auxins for callus induction.

MEDIA FOR CALLUS INDUCTION AND SUBCULTURE 43When we look at the media used to induce rice callus and to subculture it, it is surprising that natural products, such as yeast extract have often been used as nutrients. 44The use of natural products in the media has severely restricted the type of experiment that can be performed with plant tissue because these natural products contain unknown factors, and the quantities of the known and unknown factors vary with each product. 45However, in experiments to improve rice through tissue culture, an efficient and easy method is desired. 46Thus, there is no restriction on the use of such natural products as yeast extract, coconut milk, or casein hydrolysate. 47The most important thing to remember is that high levels of auxin are required in the medium. 48Chemicals must be dissolved in distilled water and preserved as stock solutions in refrigerator.

CULTURE CONDITIONS 49The most suitable temperature for rice callus is between 25 and 30 0C, and growth in the dark is better than in the light. 50Also, exposure to light sometimes causes greening of the callus. 51Callus may be friable or a consolidated mass. 52The degree of softness and the friability of the cells affect on ease of preparing a liquid suspension culture of these cells. 53Obtain soft, friable callus and transfer it to an aliquot of the liquid medium in the ration of the 105-6 cells per ml. 54The speed of reciprocal or rotary shaking depends on the type of cell, but usually it is 120 rpm.

VOCABULARY

culture N nuôi cấy

horticulture N khoa học cây trồng

callus N mô sẹo

productivity N năng suất

graft N cành ghép

sterilize V khử trùng

explant N mẫu cấy

cotyledon N lá mầm

hypocotyl N trụ dưới lá mầm

amorphous Adj không định hình

cereal N Ngũ cốc

eliminate V loại bỏ

emphasize V nhấn mạnh

redifferentiation N tái biệt hoá

regenerate V tái sinh

plantlet N cây con

procedure N phương pháp thực hiện (việc gì đó)

hull N vỏ trấu

distil V chưng cất

submerge V ngâm

friable Adj bở, dễ vỡ

consolidate V củng cố, chắc chắn

reciprocal Adj tương hỗ

EXPRESSIONS

Plant cell culture nuôi cấy mô tế bào thực vật

result from kết quả từ

define as định nghĩa là

the problem of vấn đề của

succeed in thành công trong

WORD FORMATION

New verb or adjective can be formed by adding the prefix un-, which means not

UN + VERB/ADJECTIVE = VERB/ADJECTIVE

countable (adj) đếm được uncountable (adj) không đếm được

damage (adj) hư hại undamage (adj) không hư hại

contaminate (v) bị nhiễm (bẩn) uncontaminate (v) không bị nhiễm

wrap (v) bọc, gói unwrap (v) mở, tháo

The prefix re- can be used to form new word with the meaning again or back

RE + VERB/NOUN = VERB/NOUN

differentiate (v) biệt hoá redifferentiate (v) tái biệt hoá

start (v) khởi động restart (v) khởi động lại

use (v) sử dụng reuse (v) tái sử dụng

7.2. Comprehension activites

A-CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words and phrases with the idea or expression they refer to in the text

1. Sentence 2, these 5. Sentence 17, this

2. Sentence 7, it 6. Sentence 18, this

3. Sentence 12, these 7. Sentence 24, they

4. Sentence 13, it 8. Sentence 26, they

B-SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Study the following sentence. Focus on the underlined parts.

1. Applied studies for the improvement of rice plants are especial important in rice tissue culture.

2. To improve rice productivity, a new agronomical technique that uses tissue culture is being developed.

3. It is very difficult to sterilize any part of the tissue from a plant grown under natural conditions.

4. When we look at the media used to induce rice callus and to subculture it, it is surprising that natural products, such as yeast extract have often been used as nutrients.

5. The most important thing to remember is that high levels of auxin are required in the medium.

C- COMPREHENSION CHECK

Study the following statement carefully and decide whether they are true or not true according to the information expressed in the reading text.

1. ……. People often use immature organs of plant in tissue culture.

2. ……. Explants are transplanted into a liquid medium and placed in a well-lit place.

3. ……. By increasing the auxin concentration in media, we can induce cereal callus and maintain it eassily.

4. …… Growing plants from sterilized seeds is more efficient of inducing callus.

5. …… The use of natural products such as yeast extract and coconut milk is limited in rice tissue culture experiments.

7.3. Language in use and grammar exercises

This reading introduces the Present Simple Tense. This is one of the six most common verb tenses in English. Others include the Present Continuous tense, the Future Simple tense, the Future with 'going to', the Past Simple tense, and the Present Perfect tense.

These tenses describe when something happens. All of the sentences in the reading are in the 'Present Simple Tense'. They describe things that happen every year, always, every day, usually or sometimes. The table below describes when to use each tense.

Tense Example When?

1. Present Simple People eat rice every day

Present People are eating rice now

2. Continuous People will eat rice in the future

3. Future Simple in the future

4. Future with 'going People are going to eat rice in the future in the past

5. Past Simple People ate rice up to now

6. Present Perfect People have eaten rice

Present Simple: Used to describe things which happen every year, always, every day, usually or sometimes.

Examples: Most people in the Vietnam eat rice.

She cooks rice everyday

Present Continuous: Used to express an action in the present; something that is curiently happening.

Examples: They are eating rice.

He is cooking rice for dinner

Future Simple: Used to express the future.

Examples: They will eat rice for breakfast.

I will cook more rice tonight.

Future ‘with going to’: Also used to express the future except you use the verb to be + going to. The meaning is the same as the future simple.

Examples: They are going to eat rice for dinner.

She is going to cook more rice tomorrow.

Past Simple: Used to express a completed action in the past.

Examples: I ate rice for lunch.

They cooked rice.

Present Perfect: Used to show that an action was completed sometime before the present time. Used to indicate that an action started in the past and continues to the present time

Examples: She has eaten rice every day of her life.

They have cooked rice over a fire for years.

Exercise 1: Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense

1. Plant tissue culture (be) ………. a technique to grow plants in vitro under a controlled aseptic environment using a single plant cell to tissues. 2. An early attempt at tissue culture (make) ……………. in 1885 by German zoologist Wilhelm Roux, who cultivated tissue from a chick embryo in a warm salt solution 3. Cultures (be) ……… sometimes started from single cells, resulting in the production of uniform biological populations called clones.

4. Cells (undergo) …………… an aging process whereby they multiply for only 50 to 100 generations, after which the rate decreases markedly. 5. Auxins and cytokinins (use) ………………… extensively, either alone or in combination for different steps of tissue culture 6. Plant tissue culture techniques (help) ……………… the commercial industry in the production of diversified metabolites, flavors, oils, colors, and pharmaceuticals from plants. 7. In 1902, Gottlieb Haberlandt (propose) ………………… his views on plant tissue culture in the German Academy of Science by isolating photosynthetic leaf cells for the first time. 8. The major development of plant tissue culture and its related biotechnological techniques (start) ………………… between 1940s and 1960s. 9. The plant culture technique (require) …………….. various organic and inorganic chemicals for the preparation of culture media. 10. Although micropropagation (not be able) ……………… to deliver all that it promised, it has an- swered many problems associated with conventional propagation. Excercise 2: Put the verbs in bracket into the correct form and tense to complete the paragraph Tissue culture techniques (have) …………. a variety of application in agriculture. Among these techniques, micropropagation (allow) …………… rapid multiplication of new or elite genotypes. Since the emergence of the concept of meristem/shoot-tip culture, almost 50 years ago, the technology (advance) ……………. to an extent that it is now possible to culture almost all crop species. Micropropagation (become) ………… a standard method in nursery crop industry, much as it has in foliage plants. The global biotech business is estimated to be worth about 50 billion US dol- lars, out of which 10% is the contribution of plant tissue culture products. Advances (make) ………….. in commercialization of plant tissue culture and the acceptance of tissue culture-derived plantlets by commercial nursery traders globally (lead) ………… to the growth of this industry. However, the high cost of product (act) ………… as a deterrent to its extension to many other plant species. Therefore, a fair amount of research (devote) …………. to refine and streamline the techniques for a high level of automation, so that the propagule cost could be reduced. 7.4. Translate into Vietnamese

Cells in an explant will grow and divide indefinitely in an appropriate medium. Depending on the conditions, cell growth and division may be more or less disorganized, forming individual cells or clumps of mostly parenchyma cells with little differentiation (callus cultures on solid media and suspension cultures in liquid media).

Alternatively, organized growth may persist or develop; isolated shoots or roots may grow more or less indefinitely and, given appropriate levels of growth substances, organized meristems may develop in callus cultures to give roots, shoots or small plants (plantlets). Sometimes plantlets arise through a developmental process resembling that of normal embryos and are then termed embryoids. Techniques exist for the "weaning" of plantlets and their continued growth in ordinary soil.

TÀI LIỆU THAM KHẢO

N. A. Campbell, J. B. Reece, L. A. Urry, M. L. Cain, S. A. Wasserman, P. V. Minorsky,

R. B. Jackson. (2008). Sinh học. Hà Nội: NXB Giáo dục.

Nguyễn Hoàng Lan Anh. (2024). Bài giảng tiếng Anh chuyên ngành. Quảng Nam

Nguyễn Vĩnh Trường. (2019). Bài giảng tiếng Anh chuyên ngành. Huế: Trường ĐH

Nông lâm.

http:// www.agriculture.com/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ http://www.farms.com/ http://www.gardeningknowhow.com http://faculty.msmary.edu/envirothon/current/guide/factors-of-soilformation.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htm http://www.eschooltoday.com/soils/soil-profile-and-soil-horizons.html http://www.oxforddictionaries.com https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/text01/impact1.html