Tài liệu tham khảo bằng tiếng Anh về nghệ thiật hội họa - Figure Drawing Without A Model - Graphic Narrative

Skulls photographed by Eliot Goldfinger in the collection of the Department of Mammalogy at the American Museum of Natural History, New York: American bison, African buffalo, White-tailed deer, Caribou, Ox (neg. no. 603275); Bighorn sheep (neg. no. 603276); Mountain goat, Elk, Moose (neg. no. 603277). COURTESY AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY LIBRARY

Dog (canid) characteristics: Anatomy is the same in various domestic breeds and wild species—major difference is size and proportion (Dachshund to Great Dane). Typically with elongated skull—snout long and narrow (some domestic breeds have short muzzles). Large canines. Cheekteeth with sharp edges for shearing. Large, pointed ears—upright in all wild species and in many domestic breeds; hanging in some breeds. Deep chest (top to bottom); long, thin limbs. Five digits on front limb (thumb reduced), four on hind limb (big toe absent). Blunt, nonretractile claws. Walks on toes. Forearm does not rotate (pronate/supinate). Long, bushy tail usually in wild species....

Horse (equid) characteristics: One digit per foot ending in symmetrical, horny hoof. Walks on very tip of toe. Elongated skull; large lower jaw. Large upper and lower incisors. In side view, neck widens as it approaches shoulder (elongated triangular shape). Mane present, upright on wild species. Tuft of hair often present on forehead ("forelock"). Rear profile of neck straight or arched. Pointed, upright ears. Long, slender limbs. Humerus and femur short; lower portion of limb long, especially forefoot and hind foot (adaptation for speed by shifting weight of muscles mass upward, close to the body). Ulna and fibula reduced...

Lion (feline) characteristics: Elongated skull. Proportion of skull varies—large in lion, jaguar, and tiger, small in cheetah and mountain lion. Large canines, small incisors. Cheek teeth with sharp edges for shearing. Large temporalis and masseter muscles of skull to powerfully close jaw. Eyes shifted slightly forward for binocular vision. Constricted pupil is round in large cats, vertical in domestic cats (pupil is horizontal in sheep and goats). Top edge of scapula usually higher than tips of thoracic vertebrae. Five digits on front limb (thumb reduced); four digits on hind limb (small vestigial big toe). Walks on toes. Sharp, curved,...

Ox (domestic cattle) characteristics: Unbranched, permanent horn has bony core covered with hard sheath, present usually in both male and female. Horns often cut off by owner ("polled"). No front teeth (incisors) in upper jaw; lower incisors press against toughened skin of palate. Ulna complete, but thin and fused to thicker radius. Only the upper and lower ends of the fibula are present, connected by a fibrous cord that replaces the shaft. The lower end is attached to the underside of the outer portion of the tibia. Four digits with hoofs per limb. Two central toes are large and...

Bird characteristics: Body always covered with feathers; feet (toes and usually tarsometatarsus) covered with scales (thickened skin). Aquatic birds have webbed toes. No teeth; horny beak. Lightweight skeleton in flying birds (many hollow bones), with keel on sternum for attachment of flight muscles (pectoral muscles). No keel in large flightless birds (ostrich, emu, rhea). Completely bony ribs (no rib cartilage). Clavicles fused into single bone, the furculum (wishbone). Numerous neck vertebrae (number varies by species) provide great neck flexibility. Some of the middle thoracic vertebrae fused in some species (chicken); posterior thoracic, all lumbar, and all sacral vertebrae fused into...

Understanding human anatomy will help you achieve greater expressive ability in figure drawing. By understanding the many different aspects of the human form, you can better grasp how the figure works as a whole. For example, if you feel along the bone on the lower part of your jaw, you will notice that there is a small indentation about halfway between the chin and the back of the jaw. This indentation is to allow a blood vessel to pass under the jaw. The indentation helps to protect the vessel. The significance of this little indentation is that it affects the...

In this chapter I will cover how to construct the figure using some simplified methods to make the process of drawing a little easier. I will start by showing you how to build a simple structure as the basis for defining dimension and proportion. This structure will become the foundation of your figure drawings. You will then be able to use it to develop a finished figure drawing. Drawing from the Inside Out At the beginning of every figure drawing, the artist is faced with a daunting task in defining a subject that is painfully complex yet supremely organized. Without initially...

Rabbit characteristics: Two pairs of upper incisors; second pair small and peg-like, located just behind the front pair. Perforated lace-like texture of bone on side of skull in front of eye socket. (Both features not found in rodents). Long and pointed large ears. Arched upper profile of skull. Strong extension of spine where neck vertebrae meet thoracic vertebrae. Strong extension of middle tail vertebrae, raising tufted tail. Relatively thin, delicate bones. Rear-projecting "metacromion" from lower end of shoulder blade (for insertion of trapezius and omotransversarius muscles). Long hind limbs with large feet. Sits on sole and heel of foot...

Bear characteristics: Large, powerful body; powerful limbs appear relatively short. Rear feet wide. Walks on sole and heel of rear foot and usually on digits of front foot. Five digits per limb with long, curved, nonretractile claws. Front claws longer than rear claws. Large head, small eyes. Small, round, erect, furry ears. Large canines; flat, grinding molars. Short tail. Arched back, high shoulder. Grizzly has most prominent shoulder hump and dished, slightly concave face (in profile). Can have very thick layer of fur. Grizzly and brown bear belong to the same species, but differ in geographical range and size....

Giraffe characteristics: Very tall with long neck (elongated neck vertebrae) and long limbs. Bony prominences of neck vertebrae can be seen on the surface; brachiocephalicus and omotransversarius muscles, which usually cover the neck, begin low on the side of the neck, rather than up at the skull and first neck vertebra. Back line slopes downward toward rear. Usually three, permanent, bony "horns" in both male and female, covered with skin and fur. Two located on either side of rear of skull (may be topped with hairy tufts); third horn (sometimes only a knob) wider, stubbier, and of variable size,...

Short Neck Muscles The following three muscles are located on the back of the neck, just behind the skull: the obliquus capitis caudalis, the obliquus capitis cranialis, and the rectus capitis dorsalis major. They are covered by narrow and wide tendons and thin muscles, yet they help create the fullness on the back of the neck, determined in large part by the width of the atlas (the first neck vertebra) and the vertical projection of the axis (the second neck vertebra). Obliquus capitis caudalis (Large oblique muscle, Axoido-atloideus) • Origin: Entire side of the expanded upright spine of the...

Spinal Muscles The spinal muscles are a complicated group of muscles that pass along the back of the animal from the pelvis to the middle of the neck. Each muscle consists of numerous overlapping bundles that continuously originate and insert along the spine. They lie on either side of the upper surface of the vertebral column, separated by the upright spines. This powerful muscle group consists of four units: the longissimus, the iliocostalis, the spinalis & semispinalis, and the multifidus, all of which may be divided into regional components (cervicis, thoracis & lumborum).The longissimus, iliocostalis and spinalis comprise the...

One of the greatest challenges to confront an artist is drawing the human figure. Our bodies are infinitely complex yet intimately familiar, giving rise to a subject that is difficult to depict accurately yet judged incessantly. The human figure is almost overwhelmingly complex for the artist to draw. The human figure is an organic structure that defies geometric simplification. It is composed of bones, muscles, and organs, all of which are covered by a flexible layer of skin. The body has many moving parts that make it almost impossible to define as a shape. Within its skeleton are more...

Domestic pig characteristics: Domestic pig derived from European wild boar. Snout movable—specialized for digging roots and tubers from soil. Nostrils located at end of flattened nose. Tusk-like upper canines (larger in males) grow upward and outward. Lower canines grow upward and backward to fit against larger upper canines. Upper and lower canines rub against each other, usually producing sharp edges. Elongated skull has sloping profile. Long, pointed head, small eyes, long ears; short neck. Four digits per limb, only two middle digits functional; walks on toes. Hoofs on toes (reduced side toes have small hoofs). Domestic pig has stocky body...

Tài liệu tham khảo bằng tiếng Anh về hội họa - Figure Drawing - Feline and Domestic Cat

Sea lion characteristics: Webbed flipper-like forefoot and hind foot. Front flipper thicker on front edge. Skin of flipper extends past tips of toe bones, supported by individual cartilages attached to ends of toe bones. Noticeable claws on three middle toes of hind foot; other claws tiny and inconspicuous. Front flipper triangular; hind flipper rectangular. Hind limb can be advanced forward—can walk, but thigh and lower leg encased in skin of abdomen (seals can't walk—their hind limbs permanently extended backward). Elbow also enclosed in body skin, but forearms are free. Body streamlined (torpedo-shaped) for swimming. Thick insulating blubber layer between...

Tài liệu tham khảo bằng tiếng Anh về nghệ thiật hội họa - Figure Drawing Without A Model - Practice

Introduction The muscles of the head consist of the chewing muscles (temporalis, masseter, and digastric) and the facial muscles (zygomaticus, orbicularis oris, etc.). The chewing muscles are thick and volumetric, and they originate and insert on bone. They open and close the lower jaw, with the action taking place at the jaw joint (temporomandibular joint). The facial muscles are thin. They originate either from the skull or from the surface of other muscles, and they generally insert into other facial muscles or into the skin. When they contract, they move the features of the face (eyes, nose, mouth, ears)....