Bài giảng Ngữ Âm và âm vị học

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUẢNG NAM

KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ

BÀI GIẢNG Học phần: Ngữ Âm và Âm vị học Mã học phần: 2106028

NGÀNH ĐÀO TẠO: NGÔN NGỮ ANH

1. Giảng viên biên soạn: Nguyễn Thị Thảo

2. Số tín chỉ: 03

3. Khoa quản lý học phần: Khoa Ngoại ngữ

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Quảng Nam, tháng 1 năm 2023LỜI NÓI ĐẦU

Học phần Ngữ âm và Âm vị học cung cấp các kiến thức cơ bản về ngữ âm và âm

vị học, và giúp sinh viên rèn luyện, củng cố phát âm tiếng Anh. Sinh viên hệ thống hoá

kiến thức về hệ thống âm vị và các đặc điểm của các âm vị, các yếu tố siêu đoạn tính như

trọng âm, ngữ điệu và các chức năng của các yếu tố này, và các nguyên tắc chi phối cách

phát âm trong tiếng Anh. Quan trọng là trong khi học học phần này, sinh viên được tổ

chức luyện tập phát âm vận dụng lý thuyết trong bài học. Sau khi hoàn thành học phần

Ngữ âm và Âm vị học, sinh viên có thể khắc phục các lỗi phát âm phổ biến, có thể sử

dụng phát âm, trọng âm, ngữ điệu đúng, tự nhiên. Đồng thời, học phần này giúp sinh viên

củng cố và phát triển kỹ năng nghe và nói, nâng cao năng lực giao tiếp bằng tiếng Anh.

Unit 1 Introduction to English Phonetics and Phonology

Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, the students have a general understanding of Phonetics and Phonology, and are able to identify the organs involved in the production of speech sounds. Especially, the students know how to deal with this theoretical subject during the course.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Phân biệt khái niệm ngữ âm và âm vị học và xác định các bộ phận cấu

âm

LEAD-IN

Questions: 1. What have you known about the English language?

2. How many sounds are there in the English language? 3. Which organs do you use when pronouncing a speech sound?

PRESENTATION 1.1. Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics and Phonology is a branch of linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific



study of language including:

its sound systems called Phonetics and Phonology its word structures called Morphology its sentence structures called Syntax its word meanings called Semantics its contextual meanings called Pragmatics

1.1.1. What is Phonetics?

Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds. It studies the production, the

physical nature and the perception of speech sounds.

A speech sound is a physical event with three aspects: Physiological (the production of speech sounds by the organs of articulation), Acoustic (the transmission of speech sounds), and Auditory (the perception of speech sounds)

In other words, phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced,

transmitted, and perceived.

The main aims of phonetics are to describe and to classify human speech sounds. In the course, we will be concerned only with the production of speech

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sounds by the organs of articulation, i.e. Physiological Phonetics or Articulatory Phonetics. 1.1.2. What is Phonology?

Phonology is the study of the sound pattern of a language: the rules that

govern pronunciation.

Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds. Phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language. The phonology of a language is then the system and patterns in human language.

In the study, we deal with the vowels and consonants, and stress, rhythm and

intonation. 1.1.3. The Importance of Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics attempts to record and describes the sounds of language objectively. Phonetics provides a valuable way of opening our eyes and ears to the many nuances of language that we take for granted.

Phonology concerns itself with the ways in which a given language shapes sounds into distinctive categories of perception. Through phonology, we can begin to see the way in which language is rule-governed. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds that form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign accent, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to produce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate context, to recognize what is or is not a sound in the language and to know that different phonetic strings may represent the same “meaningful units”.

Thus,

Phonetics and Phonology provides the basis for an objective understanding of the spoken language. They are also useful for describing other aspects of the language, particularly word structure, grammar, semantics and pragmatics. They can help to understand the differences between spoken and written forms of the language. Finally, they provide us with a tool for describing the differences among varieties of the language. 1.2. The Speech Organs

The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air. Air is pushed through the lungs, larynx (vocal folds) and vocal tract (oral and nasal cavities).

The organs that are used to form speech sounds are called articulators. Some of the articulators are familiar: lips, teeth and tongue, for example. But others may be less familiar, including: the alveolar ridge, the hard pate, the velum, the pharynx, the glottis and the vocal cords. The alveolar ridge is the hard ridge just behind the upper front teeth. Just behind the alveolar ridge, the roof is the mouth arches upwards. We call this hard, bony part of the roof of the mouth the hard palate. Further back, behind the hard palate, the roof of the mouth becomes soft and fleshly. This part is called the velum or the soft palate. The back part of the throat is called the pharynx. In many people, especially men, there is a bulge visible in the front of the neck. This is popularly known as the “Adam’s apple”. The technical term for this bulge is the larynx. Inside the larynx are two folds of muscles, called the vocal cords, and the space between the vocal cords is called the glottis.

The passive articulators, which are immobile, are the upper teeth, the tooth ridge (the alveolar ridge) and the hard palate. The active articulators, which can move under the control of the speaker, are pharynx, soft palate or velum, lips, the tongue, and the vocal cords. Letters, Sounds and Symbols

Letters are the symbols we use to make up the alphabet and to write words. Most writing systems do not represent the sounds of speech in an entirely accurate manner. This is particularly true in English. Think for a moment about the fact that the vowel in sheep is spelt with ee; the vowel in meat is spelt with ea; the vowel in piece is spelt with ie. And yet all the three words contain the same vowel sound.

Phonetic symbols represent the sounds of speech in a one-to-one fashion: each symbol represents one sound and each sound is represented by one and only one symbol. For example, the sound which is spelt with th as in think is really only one sound and so there is one phonetic symbol for it [θ]. On the other hand, the x in box represents two sounds. The phonetic symbols for these sounds are [ks]

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EXERCISES

A.

1. How does phonology differ from phonetics? 2. How useful is Phonetics and Phonology? 3. What are articulators? 4. What are the movable speech organs? 5. What are the fixed speech organs?

Answer the questions.

B.

1. Phonetics and phonology belong to linguistics. 2. Phonology studies the phonemic system of a language. 3. The main aims of phonology are to describe and to classify human speech

Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

4. Phonetics provides the means for describing sounds in nature. 5. Phonology studies the system and patterns of human language. 6. Vowels and consonants of a particular language are supra-segmental phonemes of

sounds.

7. Different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful units. 8. Soft palate and velum are examples of the active articulators.

that language.

Put the words below into the correct column based on the number

C. of sounds. business cupboard island singing

carrot daughter judge sugar caught door know thinking chemist check enough heart knowledge laugh thorough through cow horse more treasure

2 sounds 3 sounds 4 sounds 5 sounds 6 sounds

Unit 2

English Vowels

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students are able to describe English vowels phonemes, and to make correct pronunciation of English vowels, and to distinguish some similar vowel sounds.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa, phân loại nguyên âm tiếng Anh

LEAD-IN

1. How many vowels are there in English? 2. Write the transcriptions of the words:

Questions

eat, it, hat, heart, sport, spot, cap, cup,

3. Find more pairs of words that are identical in every sound except for one

man, men, pool, pull, shut, shirt,

vowel. Then, pronounce these pairs.

PRESENTATION 2.1. Definition

What is a vowel? A vowel is a speech sound in the production of which the air passes through

the mouth freely with vibration of the vocal cords.

In the English language, vowels can be classified into pure vowels and diphthongs. A pure vowel (monophthong) is an unchanging sound in the pronunciation of which the organs of speech do not perceptibly change the position throughout the duration of the vowel in a syllable. A diphthong is a vowel in the production of which there is a change in quality during a single syllable. 2.2. Pure Vowels and Classification

There are five criteria to classify vowels:

- Tongue height - Tongue position - Lip rounding - Muscle tension - Vowel length

2.2.1. Tongue height

Tongue height is the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue

and the palate. (= degree of opening of the mouth).

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The tongue may be raised high, mid or low. Correspondingly, the position of the jaw may also be close, mid or open. Then we have close (or high) vowels, mid- open (mid-close) vowels, and open (or low) vowels.

Close (or high) vowels There are four close (or high) vowels in the production of which one part of the tongue comes close to the palate without touching it and the air passage is narrow, but not so much as to form a consonant. The close vowels are /i:/, /ɪ/, / ʊ/ and /u:/. Open (or low) vowels There are four open (or low) vowels in the production of which one part of the

tongue is very low and the air passage is very wide.

The open vowels are /æ/, /a:/, /ɒ/ /ɔ:/ and /ʌ/. Mid-open/mid close vowels There are mid-open/mid-close vowels in the production of which the tongue is

half-way between its high and low position

The mid-open vowels are: /e/, /ə /, /з:/.

/æ/ /e/

/i:/ As you can see from the diagrams, the tongue height of the high vowel /i:/is much higher than that for the low vowel /æ/, while the tongue height for the mid vowel /e/ lies somewhere between the two.

2.2.2. Tongue position

According to which part of the tongue is raised (i.e. according to whether the back, the front or the middle of the tongue is raised towards the roof of the mouth), vowels can be front, central and back.

Front vowels There are four front vowels in the English language in the production of which the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate. The front vowels are /i:/ (as in sea, teeth, ), /ɪ/ (as in sit, lip), /e/ ( as in head, met) and /æ/ ( as in man, sand).

Back vowels There are five back vowels in the production of which the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. The back vowels are /u:/ (as in shoe, fool), / ʊ/ as in sea, full, pull), /ɒ/ (as in hot) /ɔ:/ (as in fork).

Central/Mid vowels Then there are vowels intermediate between front and back. We call them central vowel sounds. In the articulation of these sounds, the center (or middle) of the tongue is raised toward the palate. The central vowels are /з:/ (as in bird, shirt), /ə/ (as in again, along), and /ʌ/ (as in sum, run), /a:/ (as in heart, car).

/i:/ /u:/

As you can see from the diagrams, the articulation of the front vowel /i:/ is

much farther forward than that for the back vowel /u:/.

The trapezium below is originated from the mouth and it is used to describe

vowel system.

2.2.3. Lip rounding

According to the lip shape, vowels can be rounded, neutral or unrounded

(spread).

Rounded vowels There are rounded vowels in the production of which the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round. The rounded vowels are / ʊ /, /u:/, /ɒ/ and /ɔ:/.

Unrounded (spread) vowels There are unrounded or spread vowels in the production of which the lips may be spread out so as to leave a long narrow opening between them. The unrounded vowels are /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ə/, /з:/, /ʌ/, and /a:/.

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2.2.4. Vowel Length

According to the length, vowels may be long or short. The colon (:) is used with the phonetic symbols for the vowels which are long.

There are 5 long vowels: /i:, u:, з:, ɔ:, a:/ and 7 short vowels:/ ɪ, e, ʌ, æ, ə, ʊ, ɒ/. 2.2.5. Muscle Tension

The muscles of the jaw and throat may be lax or tense. Short vowels are often lax vowels meanwhile long vowels are often tense

vowels.

A tense vowel requires you to use a lot of facial muscles to produce it. A lax vowel, on the other hand, is very reduced. In fact, you don't need to move your face at all.

/e/ =

* The below figure plots the vowel phonemes of English in terms of these five dimensions: Tongue position, Tongue height, Lip rounding, Muscle tension, Vowel length. Each vowel phoneme is not really an indivisible unit, but rather a composite of values along these five dimensions. Each such dimension constitutes a distinctive feature. For example, + front + mid - rounded - long - tense

front

Distinctive Features high mid

low rounded

back

long

tense

Vowel s

i: ɪ e æ a: ɒ ɔ: ʌ ʊ u: з: ə

+ + + + - - - - - - - -

centra l - - - - + - - + - - + +

- - - - - + + - + + - -

+ + - - - - - - + + - -

- - + - - - - - - - + +

- - - + + + + + - - - -

- - - - - + + - + + - -

+ - - - + - + - - + + -

2.3. Diphthongs

Definition: A diphthong is a combination of two vowels pronounced within

one syllable.

Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols to represent the change in quality during the course of production. Thus the vowel in tie is transcribed /aɪ/, indicating a movement from /a/ to /ɪ/. The word tie is pronounced as a single syllable with a diphthong /aɪ/.

In the production of a diphthong, the organs of speech start from the position necessary for the first vowels and glide in the direction of the second vowels. The first element in all diphthongs is stressed and is stronger and more distinct than the second.

Classification Diphthongs can be classified into closing and centering diphthongs.

a. closing : ending either in /ɪ/ , or / ʊ / e.g. life, boy, phone, know b. centering : ending in / ə /, e.g. here, near, hair, sure

Closing diphthong can be classified into:

a. retracting : ending in / ʊ /, e.g. now, town, go, show b. fronting : ending in / ɪ /, e.g. eye, why, say, day, boy, destroy

The following diagram shows the classification of the diphthongs in English

according to the ending elements.

ENGLISH DIPHTHONGS

centering closing

ɪə

eə

ɔɪ

aʊ

əʊ

ʊə aɪ eɪ

ending in /ə / ending in /ɪ/ ending in / ʊ /

EXERCISES

A. Answer the questions. 1. What is a vowel? How can we classify the vowels in the English language? 2. What is a diphthong? Give five examples of centering diphthongs and five

3. What is the difference between monophthongs and diphthongs? 4. What vowels are normally tense and what vowels are normally lax? B. Decide if the following sentences are true of false. 1. All vowels are voiced. 2. A pure vowel is an unchanging sound in the pronunciation of which the organs of speech do not perceptively change the position throughout the duration of the vowel.

examples of closing diphthongs in English.

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3. The front vowel is the one in the production of which the front of the tongue

4. According to the height to which a part of the tongue is raised, vowels can be

is raised in the direction of the hard palate.

5. A close vowel is the one in the production of which the tongue is as low as

classified into close and open vowels.

6. A rounded vowel is the one in the production of which the tongue is as low as

possible

possible.

7. Vowels can be long or short. 8. 9. Diphthongs can be divided into centering and closing diphthongs according to

/e/ is a long vowel.

10. The word learn contains a diphthong. C. Choose the best answer. 1. A ______is an unchanging sound in the pronunciation of which the organs of

the second element of the tongue.

speech do not perceptibly change the position throughout the duration of the vowel

2. In the articulation of the ______sound, the central of the tongue is raised

a. diphthong b. pure vowel c. consonant d. triphthong

towards the hard palate.

3. A/An ______vowel is the one in the production of which one part of the tongue comes close to the palate without touching and the air passage is narrow, but not so much as to form a consonant.

a. front b. back c. central d. open

4. Which of the following words contains a close vowel?

a. open b. mid-open c. mid-close d. close

a. sand b. hard c. sit

6. According to______, vowels can be rounded or unrounded.

d. hot 5. Which of the following words does not contain an open vowel? d. not a. seen c. hot b. hat

7. ______vowels are the ones in the production of which the lips are drawn

a. height of the raised part of the tongue c. length of the vowel b. raised part of the tongue d. shape of the lips

together so that the opening between them is more or less round.

8. ______ vowels are the ones in the production of which the lips may be

a. Rounded b. Unrounded c. Long d. Short

spread out so as to leave a long narrow opening between them

9. Which of the following words contains a closing diphthong?

a. Long b. Spread c. Rounded d. Short

10. /a:/ is a/an ______vowel.

a. hear b. sure c. day d. very

11. /aɪ/ is a ______.

a. open front short b. open central long c. close front long d. open back long

12. Which of the following is not used as a criterion in vowel classification?

a. diphthong b. consonant c. pure vowel d. syllable

D. Fill in each blank with one suitable word. 1. One of the 5 criteria used to classify vowels is tongue height, i.e. the degree

a. The height to which the tongue is raised. b. The part of the tongue that is raised. c. The windpipe d. The vowel length

2. We can describe vowels by referring to the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. If the front of the tongue is at the highest point near the hard palate, we have a _______vowel.

3. If the back of the tongue is at the highest point near the soft palate, we have

of _______ of the mouth.

4. Vowels which are produced between the position for a front and back vowel

a_______ vowel.

5. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the _______ to which that part is raised.

6. The vowel /i:/ in /fi:d/ and /u:/ in /fu:d/ are both _______. 7. The position of the lips also has an effect on vowel quality. If the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is round, we have a _______vowel. And if the lips are not drawn together the vowel is _______vowel.

8. According to the length, vowels may be _______ or _______. 9. A _______ is a combination of two vowels pronounced within only one

are called _______vowels.

10. Diphthongs ending in /ʊ/ and /ɪ/ are _______.

syllable.

Match the phonemic transcriptions with the English words.

E 2.

E 1. Transcription Word Answer Transcription Word Answer

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1. /hɑ:t/ 2. /hæt/ 3. /haɪt/ 4. /hɒt/ 5. /hɜ:t/ 6. /heɪt/ 7. /hi:t/ 8. /hɪt/ 9. /hu:t/ 10. /hʌt/

1. /fɪt/ 2. /fʊt/ 3. /fɔ:t/ 4. /fi:t/ 5. /pi:t/ 6. /pɪt/ 7. /pɑ:t/ 8. /pæt/ 9. /pɒt/ 10. /pɔ:t/

a. fought b. feet c. foot d. fit e. peat f. pot g. port h. part i. pat j. pit a. hate b. hat c. height d. hit e. hoot f. hot g. hurt h. heat i. hut j. heart

Unit 3 English Consonants

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students are able to describe English consonants phonemes, and to make correct pronunciation of English consonants, and to distinguish some similar consonant sounds.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa, phân loại phụ âm tiếng Anh

LEAD-IN

Questions 1. How many consonants are there in English? 2. Can you pronounce: see /si:/, she /ʃi:/, zee /zi:/, ye /ji:/, thee /ði:/?

PRESENTATION 3.1. Definition

A consonant is a speech sound in the pronunciation of which there is an

obstruction of the air passage in the mouth.

Vowels vs. Consonants Major differences between vowels and consonants:

Vowels Consonants

produced with relatively little obstruction in the vocal tract produced with a narrow or complete closure in the vocal tract

- more sonorous - less sonorous

- voiced - either voiced or voiceless

- syllabic - generally not syllabic.

3.2. Classification

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In the English language, there are 24 consonants. Consonants are normally described with reference to three main criteria: places of articulation, manner of articulation and work of vocal cords. 3.2.1. Places of articulation in the vocal tract

Places of articulation are the points in the vocal tract at which the articulators

alter the shape of the vocal tract to produce distinct consonant sounds.

Bilabial (Labial) Bilabial sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the lips against

each other. Bilabial consonants are: /b, p, m/.

Labiodental Labiodental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the upper

teeth towards the lower lip. Labiodental consonants are: /f, v/.

Interdental (Dental) Interdental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tongue

between the teeth. Interdental consonants are : /θ, ð/.

Alveolar Alveolar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tip of the

tongue towards the alveolar ridge. Alveolar consonants are: /t, d, s, z, n, l, r/.

Alveopalatal

Alveopalatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the front of the tongue towards the area between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Alveopalatal consonants are: /ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/.

Palatal Palatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the

tongue towards the hard palate. There is one palatal consonant in English /j/.

Velar Velar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the

tongue towards the velum. Velar consonants are: /k, g, ŋ /.

Glottal Glottal sounds are those sounds made at the glottis. There is one glottal

consonant in English /h/. 3.2.2. Manner of articulation

Manner of articulation is how the articulators alter the shape of the vocal tract. Plosives (Stop) A plosive is formed by the complete obstruction of the vocal tract by the articulators. This obstruction is then released, allowing the air to "explode" out of the mouth. Plosive consonants are: /p, b, t, d, k, g/.

Fricatives A fricative is formed by a constriction in the vocal tract by the articulators, such as the tongue or the lips. However, unlike stops, the blockage in the vocal tract is not complete. Some of the air is allowed to come through a very narrow opening.

This air becomes turbulent, because of the friction between the airflow and the narrow passage.

Fricative consonants are: /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ, h/. Affricates An affricate combines the manners of articulation for the plosive and the fricative. Like a stop, the articulation of the affricate begins with a complete closure of the vocal tract by an articulator. However, when the closure is released, the release is somewhat gradual, providing a narrow space between the articulator and the mouth for the airflow to move through. This narrow space creates an environment similar to a fricative, in that the airflow moving out becomes turbulent for a brief period until full release of the closure.

Affricate consonants are: /ʧ, ʤ/. Nasals A nasal is formed by the obstruction of the vocal tract and the lowering of the velum. This lowering of the velum allows the airflow to flow out through the nasal cavity, rather than through the oral cavity. Nasal consonants are: /m, n, ŋ/.

Semi-vowels A semi-vowel is formed by the constriction of the vocal tract, but with no obstruction in the vocal tract. Therefore, no turbulent airflow, as in a fricative. Instead, the air is allowed to flow freely through the vocal tract.

Semi-vowel consonants are: /w, r, j/ Lateral

The sound /l/ is known as a lateral, since the air from the lungs escapes at one

side or both sides of the tongue.

Other Terms: Obstruents: Because stops, fricatives, and affricates share the phonetic property of impeding the airflow by constricting the vocal passage, these three sets of sounds are together .

Approximants: English has four sounds that are known as approximants because they are produced by two articulators approaching one another as for affricatives but not coming close enough to produce audible friction. They are /j/, /r/, /l/ and /w/.

Continuants: sounds which are not stops are continuants because the stream of

air continues without interruption through the mouth opening. 3.2.3. Work of vocal cords

For any articulation corresponding to one of the phonemes, the vocal cords

are either vibrating or not.

Voiceless sounds are sounds in the production of which the vocal cords do

not vibrate. /p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, ʧ, h/

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Voiced sounds are sounds in the production of which the vocal cords do

vibrate. /b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, ʤ, j, m, n, ŋ, l, r, w /

Compare zoo /zu:/ (voiced) and sue /su:/ (voiceless). The sound /s/ is called voiceless because there is no vibration, and the sound /z/ is called voiced because the vocal folds vibrate (you can feel on your neck if there is vibration.)

Stops, fricatives, and affricatives come in voiced and voiceless pairs (except

for /h/). Nasals, lateral, and semi-vowels are all voiced, so are vowels.

* The below figure plots the consonant phonemes of English in terms of these three physical dimensions: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. Thus, for example, /p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop; /v/ is a voiced labiodental fricative; and so on.

Each consonant phoneme is a composite of values along these three

dimensions _distinctive features. For example,

/p/ = /ŋ/=

+ bilabial + stop - voice + velar + nasal + voice

EXERCISES

A. Answer the questions. 1. What is a consonant? 2. What is the difference between vowels and consonants? 3. 4. Give the phonetic description of the consonants in the word

How can we describe the consonants?

5. What is the difference between a fricative and a plosive? 6. State the differences between bilabial plosives and alveolar plosives. 7. Give the classification of the English fricatives, providing a word containing

EXAMINATION.

8. What factor determines whether a consonant is voiced or voiceless? 9. What are the active and passive articulators in the following:

the sound for each case.

velar nasal

10. Circle the place(s) of articulation at which lateral consonants can be

i. ii. voiceless dental fricative iii. alveolar approximant

produced.

bilabial alveolar uvular

labio-dental B. Decide if the following sentences are true of false. 1..A.1. 1..A.2. 1..A.3. Speech sounds are divided into pure vowels and diphthongs. Consonants are more sonorous than vowels. A consonant is a sound in the production of which no obstruction is

1..A.4.

formed in the mouth by the active organs of speech.

Consonants may be classified according to a) the organs of speech,

1..A.5.

and b) the manner of articulation.

If we classify the consonants according to the vibration of the vocal

1..A.6. 1..A.7. 1..A.8. 1..A.9.

cords, they can be voiced or voiceless.

1..A.10. Voiceless sounds are sounds in the articulation of which the vocal

Labials are bi-labial and labio-dentals. Palatals are sounds articulated in the glottis. A plosive is a stop sound. A nasal is a sound formed by the tip of the tongue firmly pressed against the teeth ridge or the teeth so that the air can escape at one or both sides of the tongue.

1..A.11.

cords do not vibrate.

Stops are speech vowels during the production of which the air is

1..A.12. The following criteria are used in consonant classification:

completely blocked before it is released.

a. The position of the soft palate b. the manner of articulation

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C. Fill in each blank with one suitable word. 1. Labio-dental consonants are articulated by _______lip against the _______. 2. Alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the

c. The place of articulation. d. The shape of the lips

3. Affricative is a combination of a _______consonant with an immediate

_______.

4. A _______ is the sound formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some

following _______sound.

5. _______are the sound produced when the air stream is completely stopped for a moment, after which it is allowed to rush out of the mouth with an explosive sound.

6. _______are sounds formed by the tip of the tongue firmly pressed against the

point so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing.

7. All __________ consonants are voiced sounds. 8. The consonant which is produced when the tongue touches the soft palate is

teeth ridge or the teeth so that the air can escape at one or both sides of the tongue.

9. _______ are consonants which begin as plosives and end as fricatives 10. Continuants are sounds which are not _______. 11. ___________ is the general name for semi vowels and lateral. 12. /s/ is described as:

called __________.

/s/ =

+ _______ + fricative - voice

Unit 4 The Syllable

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students are able to identify one syllable within the word, and to analyze the structure of a syllable, and to distinguish types of syllables.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa, xác định và phân loại âm tiết trong tiếng Anh.

WARMER Crossword

English consonants and vowels

B I L A B I A L V O I C E L E S S

N A S A L G L O T T A L

R O U N D E D I V E P L O S

T E N S E

L A T E R A L

H I G H

B A C K

O B S T R U E N T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11

Clues 1. _______ is the consonant articulated by the two lips. 2. Nine out of twenty-four English consonants are _______. 3. _______ is the sound in the production of which the air from the lungs escapes down the nose. 4. _______ is the consonant articulated in the glottis. 5. /ʊ/, /u:/, /ɒ/ and /ɔ:/ are _______. 6. /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ are _______. 7. Long vowels are _______. 8. In English only /l/ is _______. 9. Close vowels are _______.

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10. _______ is the vowel in the production of which the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. 11. _______ is the name for all stops, fricatives, and affricates.

LEAD-IN

1. How many syllables are there in each of the following words? restaurant, fire, nice, secretary, cheque, queue, once, naïve, guarantee, hour.

2. Where is the boundary of the two syllables? /tr æ n -s k r a I b/ or /tr æ n s- k r a I b/ or /tr æ n s k - r a I b/

/tr æ n s k r a I b/

PRESENTATION 4.1. Definition

The syllable may be defined as one or more speech sounds forming a word or part of a word, containing one vowel sound, with or without one or more consonants and uttered at a single effort, e.g. man, mor-ning. Syllable Structure

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)

nucleus(N) Coda (C)

A complete description of a syllable (б) requires four sub-syllabic units. The nucleus (N) is the syllable's only obligatory member. It is a vocalic segment that forms the core of a syllable. The coda (C) consists of those segments that follow the nucleus in the same syllable. The rhyme (R) is made up of the nucleus and coda. The onset (O) is made up of those segments that precede the rhyme in the same syllable. 4.2. Syllable Formation

In the English language the syllable can be formed by: a. a vowel (V), e.g. I, eye b. one vowel preceded by one or more consonants (CV), e.g. tea, ski. c. one vowel followed by one or more consonants (VC) , e.g. at, inch. d. one vowel sound both preceded and followed by one consonant or more

consonants (CVC), e.g. hit, split, tusk.

e. a word-final syllabic lateral /l/ or nasal /n, m/ immediately preceded by a

consonant, e.g. /pl/ in people, /dn/ in garden.

If the syllable begins with a vowel (any vowel may occur, though /ʊ/ is rare) we say that this syllable has a zero onset. The consonant that begins a syllable is called the initial consonant. The consonant /ŋ/ is rarely an initial consonant. The

initial consonant of the first syllable of a word may be any consonant phoneme except /ŋ, ʒ/.

If there is no final consonant we say that this syllable has a zero coda. The consonant that ends a syllable is called the final consonant. Any consonant may be a final consonant except /h, r, w, j/.

When we have two or more consonants beginning or ending a syllable, we call them a consonant cluster. In English, the maximum number of initial consonants is 3, and that of final consonants is 4.

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Initial two-consonant clusters are of two sorts in English.

Possible Consonant Clusters  (1).

/s/

/ p, t, k/ /f / /m, n / / l, w, j / spin, stick, skin,.. sphere, .. smell, snow,.. slang, swear, suit

(2).

/ l /

/ r /

/ w /

/ j /



/p, b, k, g/ /f/ /p, t, k / /b, d, g / /f, θ, ∫ / / t, k / / d / / θ/ /p, t, k / /b, d / /m, n / /f, v, h / play, black, clock, glad,.. fly, … prince, trick, cream,.. branch, dream, green,.. French, three, shrimp,.. twenty, quick,… dweller,… thwart, … pure, tube, curious,… beauty, during,.. music, new, … few, view, human,…

Initial three-consonant clusters

t, / l / / r / splendid,… spray, stream, screen,…

t, / w / / j / squash,… spew, stupid, skewer,…

/p/ /p, k / / k / /p, k /

 (1).

Final two-consonant clusters:

/m, n, ŋ, l, s/ / p, t, k / bump, bent, bank, belt, ask,..

(2).



/t / /d/ /k/ /g/ /s, θ/ / z, / /s, t, / / z, d / cats, eighth,… beds, … books, booked,… bags, hugged,..

Final three-consonant clusters:

(1).

helped,… banks,… bonds,… twelfth,… / l / / ŋ / /n/ /l/ /p/ / k / /d/ /f/ /t/ / s / /z/ / θ/

(2).

collapsed,… /p/ / k / next,… /f/ fifths,… /s/ /s/ / θ / /t/ / t / / s /

 (1). (mostly)

Final four-consonant clusters

/f/ / p / / θ / / t / /s/ /s/

twelfths,… / l / / m/ prompts, …

(2). (some)

/ k / /s/ sixths,… texts,… /s/ /s/ / θ / / t /

4.3. Syllable Division

Procedures to define the syllable boundary: Step 1: Start from the back. Step 2: Count the nucleus to know the number of the syllables. Step 3: Give the last syllable maximum amount of initial consonants (onset). Step 4: Note the possible consonant cluster. Example:

dextral: demonstrate: /dek-strəl/ /de-m ən-streɪt/

Correct syllable division at the junction of words is very important in English, as wrong syllable division may lead to the confusion of one word with another. One example is the sequence of sounds /ʃ i: s ɔ: ð ə m i: t/ can be read as She saw them eat or She saw the meat depending on correct syllable division of the sound sequence / ð ə m i: t/. 4.4. Classification

Syllables can be classified by two common ways.

4.4.1. Closed and open syllables

- Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel is called an open syllable,

e.g. he, writer.

- Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant is called a closed

syllable, e.g. it, man. -25-

4.4.2. Strong and weak syllables

The vowel in a weak syllable tends to be shorter, of lower intensity and different in quality in comparison with the vowel in strong syllables. For example, in the word father /`fa:ðə/, the second syllable is shorter and less loud than the first. The nucleus of any strong syllable is one of the vowel phenomena but not /ə /. Weak syllables, on the other hand, can only have their nucleus as one of the following:

a. the vowel /ə / (schwa) b. a syllabic consonant Syllabic consonants

Most English syllables contain one vowel. However, there are syllables in which no vowel is found. In these cases, either /l/, /r/ or a nasal, stands as the center of the syllable instead of the vowel. It is usual to indicate that a consonant is syllabic by means of a small vertical mark (,) put under the consonant, for example cattle [`kætļ]. The syllabic consonants are /l, m, n, r, ŋ/. Examples of words containing syllabic consonants are bottle, muddle, garden, and thicken, history.

The syllabic consonants /l, n/ are frequently found. /m , ŋ / can only occur as syllabic as a result of processes such as assimilation and elision that we will discuss later in the course. We find them sometimes in words like broken in broken plate, which can be pronounced [`brəʊkm], though [`brəʊkņ] and [`brəʊkən] are equally acceptable. An example of possible syllabic velar nasals would be in the phrase broken key, where broken can be pronounced [br∂υkŋ].

When /r/ can occur, there are perfectly acceptable alternative pronunciations without the syllabic consonant. For example history can be pronounced [`hɪstri:] or [`hɪstŗi:] (not usually [`hɪstəri:]) EXERCISES

Answer the questions. A. 1. How is the syllable defined? 2. What is the internal structure of an English syllable? 3. What is an English syllable formed by? 4. What syllable is called phonetically open syllable? Closed syllable? 5. What is the different between weak and strong syllables? 6. Draw the syllable internal structure of the words: noun, common, English,

extra, cinema, transcribe, complex, international.

B. 1. The syllable may be defined as one or more speech sounds, forming a word or part of a word, containing one vowel sound, with or without a consonant or consonants, and uttered at a single effort.

Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

2. The full internal structure of a phoneme consists of onset and coda. 3. In the word spring, /i:/ is the nucleus. 4. “sun” is a word with two syllables.

5. The syllable structure of learn is CVC. 6. A weak syllable is the one that might end in a syllabic consonant. 8. “or” is a syllable made up of one phoneme. 9. A syllable which ends in a vowel is called a closed syllable. 10. Correct syllable division is very important in communication. C. Choose the best answer. 1. The ______ may be defined as one or more speech sounds forming a word or part of a word, containing one vowel sound, with or without a consonant ( or consonants), and uttered at a single effort.

b. phoneme c. intonation d. morpheme

d. hit b. seem

c. sit d. or b. eat

c. it b. eat d. eye

d. eye

b. seat d. little

b. one consonant + one vowel d. two stops

b.2 d.4 c.3

d. Ger-many c. German-y

d. eat c. at b. it

b. learn c. or d. at

b. sea c. sit d. at

a. syllable 2. Which syllable is formed by a vowel only? c. or a. sky 3. Which syllable is formed by a vowel + a consonant? a. she 4. Which syllable is formed by a consonant + a vowel? a. she 5. Which syllable is formed by a consonant + a vowel + a consonant c. eat b. sit a. he 6. Which word contains a syllabic consonant? a. neat c. run 7. In English, a syllable is generally not formed by ______. a. a vowel c. one vowel + one consonant 8. How many syllables are there in the word garden? a.1 9. Which of the following syllable division is correct? b. germ-any a. Ger-ma-ny 10. Which of the following syllables is an open syllable? a. she 11. Which of the following syllable has the structure of V? a. talk 12. Which of the following syllables has the structure of CV? a. learn 13. Which of the following syllables has the full structure of onset-nucleus-

code?

c. or b. are d. I

c. /str/ d. /ts/ b. /tr/

c.3. d.4 b.2

a. sit 14. Which consonant cluster is the onset in the word street? a./sr/ 15. How many syllables are there in the word ordinarily? a.1 16. Which of the following words contains a syllable of the type C + syllabic

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b. read c. can d. eye

a. little 17. Which of the following syllables is an open syllable? a. meet b. reach c. do d. sit

Unit 5 Phonemes

Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, students are able to define what a phoneme is, and to decide whether some certain speech sounds are different phonemes or variants of the same phoneme.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa âm vị và các khái niệm liên quan, phân biệt âm vị và âm tố

LEAD-IN Questions E.1. How many letters are there in each word: flocks, phlox ? How many speech sounds are there in each of them? E.2. What are the meanings of bill and Bill? How are they pronounced? E.3. Transcribe these words: man men

u: ___ a:

___ ə ___ ɔɪ ʊə

V O W E L S

t θ

k s

___ z

d ___

___

i: ʌ ɔ: eɪ ___ əʊ ___ v ___ n

E.4. Complete the chart. ɪ e æ ___ ɪə aʊ p ___ ʧ ___ w

ŋ l

C O N S O N A N T S

___

books tables stop top

PRESENTATION

Phonemes are not letters; they refer to the sound of a spoken utterance. For example, flocks and phlox have exactly the same five phonemes. Similarly, bill and Bill are identical phonemically, regardless of the difference in meaning. Each

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language has its own inventory of phonetic differences that it treats as phonemic— that is, as necessary to distinguish meaning. For practical purposes, the total number of phonemes for a language is the least number of different symbols adequate to make an unambiguous graphic representation of its speech that any native could read if given a sound value for each symbol, and that any foreigner could pronounce correctly if given additional rules covering nondistinctive phonetic variations that the native makes automatically. For convenience, each phoneme of language may be given a symbol. 5.1. Minimal Pairs

Definition: Minimal pairs are two words with different meanings that have

the same sounds except for one sound that occurs in the same place in the string.

The sound that distinguishes one word from another is called contrastive

(contrasting) sound. The contrasting sounds can either be consonants or vowels.

For example, the words pin /pɪn/ and bin /bɪn/ are minimal pairs because they are exactly the same except for the first sound /p/ and /b/; the sounds constituting the words read /ri:d/ and rude /ru:d/ are also exactly the same except for the vowel sound /i:/ and /u:/. However, /la:f/ and fa:m/ are not a minimal pair. In effect, words with one contrastive sound are minimal pairs.

5.2. Distinctive Features

In order for two phonetic forms to differ and to contrast meanings, there must be some phonetic differences between the substituted sounds. The minimal pair seal and zeal shows that [s] and [z] represent two contrasting phonemes in English. As we know, the only difference between [s] and [z] is a voicing difference ( [s] : [ - voiced]; [z] : [+voiced] ). It is this phonetic feature that distinguishes the two sounds and thus the two words. When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another, it is a distinctive feature.

Phonetic differences between two words which signal differences in meaning between them are distinctive. If not, they are nondistinctive. One objective of phonology is to identify which differences are distinctive and which are not. 5.3. Phonemes and Allophones

5.3.1. Phonemes Definition: Phoneme is said to be the smallest indivisible unit of speech,

capable of distinguishing one word from another.

Phonemes are the segments used to differentiate between the meanings of words. You can change one word into another by simply changing one sound. Consider the differences between the words "time" and "dime". The words are identical except for the first sound. /t/and /d/ can therefore distinguish words, and are called contrasting sounds. These are distinguished by distinctive features, and they are distinctive sounds in English. All distinctive sounds are classified as phonemes.

Phoneme is very general, abstract, and it belongs to a community of people

who speak the same language.

The phoneme can be further analyzable into distinctive features, which are particular characteristics distinguishing one distinctive sound of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group. Consider, for example, the differences between /p/ and /b/:

/b/ + bilabial + voice + stop + consonantal

/p/ + bilabial - voice + stop + consonantal These two phonemes differ in only one respect: voice. Hence voice is a distinctive feature. Other examples are /p-g/ which differ in two aspects (voiceless- voiced; bilabial-velar) and /p-z/ which differ in three aspects (voiceless-voiced; bilabial-alveolar; plosive-fricative).

We can conclude that there is no one-to-one correspondence between phonetic segments and phonemes in a language. One phoneme may be realized phonetically (that is, pronounced) as more than one phonetic segment. For example, each vowel phoneme in English is realized as either an oral vowel or a nasalized vowel, depending on its context. 5.3.2. Allophones Definition: Allophones (or phones) are actually realized variants of the same

phonemes in a specific context.

(a) do not change the meaning of a word, (b) are all very similar to one another, (c) occur in phonetic contexts different form one another, (d) and have non- distinctive differences.

The allophones of a phoneme form a set of sounds that:

The allophones of the same phoneme have phonetic differences which do not give rise to corresponding phonemic differences. These phonetic differences between the variants of the same phoneme are non-distinctive.

Allophones are predictable. The use of allophones is not random, but rule- governed. No one is taught these rules as they are learned subconsciously when the native language is acquired.

For example, in English when the phoneme /p/ occurs that the beginning of words like PUT /pʊt/ and PEN /pen/, it is said with a little puff of air, i.e. it is aspirated: [ph ʊt], [phen]. But when /p/ occurs in words like SPEND and SPELL it is unaspirated [po]. So, [ph], [po] are allophones of the phonemes /p/.

Allophones are specific, concrete and individual.

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To distinguish phonology from phonetics, we enclose phonemes (phonemic transcription) in slanted brackets _ / /_ and use square brackets _ [ ]_ for allophones or phones (phonetic transcription). 5.4. Complementary Distribution and Free Variation

The allophones of a phoneme can relate to each other in two ways:

complementary distribution and free variation. 5.4.1. Complementary Distribution If one allophone always occurs in one position, and if the other allophone always occurs in another position, we say that the two allophones are in complementary distribution. In other words, when two or more sounds never occur in the same phonemic context or environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.

For example, [th ], which at the beginning of a stressed syllable never occurs after /s/ and [t], which at the beginning of a stressed syllable always occurs after /s/ . [th ] and [t] cannot substitute each other. It is in this sense that they are said to complement each other or to be in complementary distribution.

5.4.2. Free Variation Two allophones of a single phoneme are said to be in free variation if either

can be used and the choice has no effect on the meaning of the word.

This is the case when some phonemes in English are pronounced differently by different speakers. This is most noticeable among American English speakers and British English speakers, as well as dialectal differences. This is evidenced in the ways neither, for example, pronounced. American English pronunciation is ['nɪðə], while British English pronunciation is ['najðə].

English speakers may freely pronounce the final stops of words such as rat in one or another of several ways. They may either release the stop with considerable breathiness (aspiration) or they may not release at all. We present these two possibilities with the diacritics, superscript [ h ] or superscript [ o ] , respectively ; [ræth] and [ræt o]. English speakers do not associate any difference in meaning with the difference in pronunciation of the final consonant.

When both pronunciations represent the same unit, they are in free variation. Substituting one of the sounds for the other does not affect the meaning represented. EXERCISES

A. Answer the questions. 1. What is a phoneme? An allophone? 2. How phonemes are classified? 3. What is a distinctive feature? Does an allophone have both distinctive and

4. How do you understand the two terms: segmental and supra-segmental

non-distinctive feature?

phoneme?

5. Which kind of transcription should be used in the teaching of English at

secondary schools, phonemic transcription or phonetic transcription? B. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. The phoneme is a distinctive unit of sounds in a language. 2. The allophones of a phoneme are concrete realizations of that phoneme. The

3. All phonemes can be regarded as being made up of a number of distinctive

phoneme is an abstract unit.

4. Allophones of a phoneme are predictable phonetic variants of that phoneme. 5. The allophones of a phoneme are abstract realizations of that phoneme. 6. [t] and [th] are allophones of the same phoneme /t/.

features.

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Unit 6 Word Stress

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students are able to put the stress of a word in the right place, and to decide the parts of speech of a pair of identical words based on stress, and to know rules that govern the stress of compound and complex words.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa và xác định trọng âm của từ

LEAD-IN

PHONEMES

segmental super-segmental

consonants vowels stress intonation rhythm

morning evening afternoon television computer record

Read the following words aloud, using stress on the correct syllable. blackboard photo ice-cream photograph desktop photographer schoolbag photographic absent-minded economics out-going economical nineteen well- known ninety

PRESENTATION 6.1. Definition

Word stress is defined as the prominence given to certain syllable(s) in a word

by the use of greater breath force.

The prominence can be produced by four main factors: (a) loudness, (b) length, (c) pitch and (d) quality. Generally, these four main factors work together in combination, though syllables may sometimes be made prominence by means of only one or two of them.

Stress is a distinctive unit. It is capable of distinguishing one word from

another in the terms of meaning and function.

Example: meaning: minute /'mɪ nɪt/ : a unit of time

/maɪ' nju:t/ = tiny/ small

function:

present /'preznt/ (n/adj.) /prɪ'zent/ (v)

There are two very important notes about word stress:

- One word, one primary stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. So if you hear two stresses, you have heard two words, not one word.) - The stress is always on a vowel.

6.2. Levels of Stress

(I.i) tonic strong (or primary) indicated by the sign (') put before the stressed

Three levels of word-stress may be identified:

(I.ii) non-tonic strong (or secondary) indicated by (,) (I.iii) unstressed.

syllable

e.g.: representation /,reprIzen'teI(cid:0) n/

6.3. General Stress Rules

Here are some rules that can help you understand where to put the stress. But do not rely on them too much, because there are many exceptions. It is better to try to "feel" the music of the language and to add the stress naturally.

6.3.1. Two-syllable Words 6.3.1. 1. Stress on first syllable Rule

Most 2-syllable nouns Most 2-syllable adjectives Example `China, `table, `export `slender, `clever, `happy

6.3.1.2. Stress on last syllable

Rule

Most 2-syllable verbs Example ex`port, de`cide, be`gin

6.3.2. Homographs 6.3.2.1. Two-syllable words Stress is the major feature that distinguishes certain pairs of words. Some of these pair are unrelated words such as dessert and desert, but may consist of a noun or an adjective and a verb which are identical in term of spelling. In general, for these pairs, the noun or the adjective is given stress on the first syllable while the verb is given stress on the second syllable.

Adjective `abstract `perfect `present Verb ab`stract per`fect pre`sent

Example, Noun `convert `export `import `rebel `record Verb con`vert ex`port im`port re`bel re`cord

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sub`ject

`subject Many adjectives in this category are also nouns. An abstract, for example, is a short summary of a paper proposed for a conference, and a present is a gift. Though in most cases the meanings of the various forms of one word are related, the relationship is not always obvious. 6.3.2.2. Three-syllable words For most of the three-syllable pair, the noun or adjective form has primary stress only on the first syllable while the verb retains primary stress on the first syllable but also has secondary stress on the third syllable. However, unstressed vowels tend to be reduced, and stressed vowels (whether the stress is primary or secondary) tend to have their “full form”. The major audible difference in the pronunciation of these pairs, then, occurs in the vowel in the third syllable.

Example, Verb Noun/ Adjective `esti,mate `estimate `mode,rate `moderate `prophe,sy `prophesy `sepa,rate `separate There are also a few three-syllable pairs in which the primary stress shifts in the verb form to the second syllable. An example is attribute. The verb envelop also shows this pattern, though, in this case, the noun form envelope is spelt differently. Stress shift dependent upon part of speech is similar to what happens in many words when suffixes are added. 6.3.3. Suffixation

Prefixes have no effect on stress. However, suffixes sometimes affect stress. Suffixes are of two kinds, inflectional and derivational.

Inflectional suffixes do not change the lexical category. Examples of inflectional suffixes on verbs are: -s, -ing, -ed as in walk+s, walk+ing, walk+ed. The inflectional suffixes never carry stress and they do not affect stress placement.

Derivational suffixes change the lexical category. They may, for example, change a verb into a noun, as in teach + er or a noun into an adjective, as in democrat + ic , or an adjective into a noun, as in tranquil + lity.

Derivational suffixes, which sometimes affect stress, are classified into three

types: (1) stress-preserving, (2) stress-attracting, (3) stress-shifting. 6.3.3.1. Stress-preserving

Stress-preserving suffixes produce no change in stress placement in words. Example, -al -ish -fy -ful -like -wise -ous -less -ment -y -ly -ness -age

-able -ing -en 6.3.3.2. Stress-attracting

Stress-attracting suffixes receive primary stress.

Example:

-ee (e.g. refugee, evacuee) -ese (e.g. Portuguese, journalese) -esque, -ique (e.g. picturesque, unique)

-ain (e.g. entertain, ascertain) -eer (e.g. mountaineer, volunteer) -ette (e.g. cigarette, launderette) 6.3.3.3. Stress-shifting

Stress-shifting suffixes make the stress shift, but not to the suffix that caused

Example,

the shift.

- ical - ient - ian - ience -itive - iency - ious - ity - eous -graphy - uous -logy

- ial - ic - ion - ics 6.4. Compounding and Stress Placement 6.4.1. Compound Nouns

Compounds which produce a noun are most commonly formed from two nouns (as in baseball) or from and adjective plus a noun (as in greenhouse). In these cases, the stress goes on the first element.

Example, `greenhouse ` traffic lights `blackboard po`lice station 'suitcase `White House Notice that noun compounds in which the first element is an adjective often contrast with phrases consisting of the same adjective followed by a noun. In a phrase consisting of an adjective followed by a noun, stress in normally placed on the noun.

Example: Compound Nouns `greenhouse `blackboard `White House `English teacher

(teacher of English) Noun Phrases green `house black `board white `house English `teacher (a teacher from England)

6.4.2. Compound Adjectives and Adverbs

Compound Adjectives and adverbs usually have stress on the final element. Example:

Compound Adjectives Compound Adverbs

heavy `handed mild `mannered first `class north `west head `first up`stairs

two `wheeler

6.4.3. Phrasal Verbs

In phrasal verbs, the preposition gets the word stress. If they have a noun

counterpart, however, it gets the stress on the first part.

Verbs Nouns

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let `down shut `out print `out turn `off take `over `letdown `shutout `printout `turnoff `takeover

NOTES: Moving Stress

During speech, the English tend to avoid two consecutive stresses ( i.e. a double stress sequence). This means that when stress falls on the second element of the compound, and if that compound modifies a following noun, the stress usually shifts back to the first element of the compound (usually the first syllable of the word).

Example, mild-`mannered first `class north`west but but but `mild-mannered `gentleman `first class `ticket `northwest `wind

Another example is the numbers thirteen. In isolation, they have stress on the second syllable: “Did you say `thirty or thir`teen?”. However, when followed by a noun, the stress in these words shifts back to the first syllable: `thirteen `candles. EXERCISES

A. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Word-stress can be defined as the tendency to pronounce the stressed

syllables are more or less regular intervals of time?

2. The prominence in the word stress can be produced by the following

factors:(a). loudness, (b). length, (c).pitch, (d). quality.

3. English is a language which has fixed stress in the sense that the stress is

always falls on the last syllable in a word.

5. If the second syllable of a two-syllable words verb contains a long vowel or

diphthong or if it ends in more than one consonant, the second syllable is stressed.

6. Three-syllable simple nouns usually have the stress placed on the first

syllable.

7. In three-syllable verbs, if the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends in

not more than one consonant, stress will be placed on the preceding syllable.

8. Suffixes such as -able, -age, -al, -erg... change the place of stress in a word. 9. The difference between a compound and a phrase is that a compound

usually has the single-stress pattern.

10. The stress falls on the initial syllable in the word family.

B. Choose the best answer.

1. _________ is defined as the prominence given to certain syllable in a word

by the use of greater breath force.

d. Assimilation

b. On the last syllable d. On the last syllable (either of them )

c. photography d. perfection b. teaching

a. Rhythm b. Word-stress c. Timbre 2. Which of the following factors can not be used to produce word-stress? a. Loudness b. length d. Meaning c. Pitch 3. Where does the stress falls on the word family, cinema? a. On the first syllable c. On the second syllable 5. Which of the words has the stress on the last syllable? a. mountaineer 6. Which of the following words has the stress on the suffix added to the

word?

c. mountaineer b. photography d. speaking

a. readable 7 Which of the following words has the place of stress unchanged when a

suffix is added to the word?

b. proverbial c. expensive d. entertainment

a. evacuate 8. Which of the following words has the shifted stress when a suffix is added? a. advantage-advantageous c. govern-government b. read-readable d. wide-widen

C. Listen and decide whether the word is a noun or a verb.

console desert permit conflict insert present contract rebel protest convict record progress

D. Odd one out.

1. A. study 2. A. deficiency 3. A. employee 4. A. tenant 5. A. company 6. A. animal 7. A. neighbour 8. A. investment 9. A. writer 10. A. decision B. reply B. deficit B. referee B.common B. atmosphere B. bacteria B.establish B. television B. teacher B. deceive C. apply C. reference C. committee C. rubbish C.customer C. habitat C. community C. provision C. builder C. decisive D. rely D. deference D. refugee D. machine D. employment D. pyramid D. encourage D. document D. career D. decimal

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Unit 7

Intonation

Objectives:

By the end of the lesson the students will be able to have basic knowledge of intonation, and to use intonation to indicate a question, a statements, etc., and to analyze the tone unit of intonation.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa ngữ điệu và xác định chức năng của các loại ngữ điệu; thực

hành ngữ điệu.

WARMER Say the words in quotation marks in the contexts that follow. 'Hello' to a friend. to a friend you haven't seen for 3 years. to a neighbour that you don't like. to a 6 month old baby. to someone you have just found doing something they shouldn't. to someone on the phone when you're not sure if they are still on the other end. 'Goodbye' to a member of your family as they are going through the boarding gate at the airport. to someone who has been annoying you. to a child starting his very first day at school. 'What have you done?' to someone who claims to have fixed your television only that now it's worse than before. to someone who is scolding you for not doing anything when you suspect the same about them. to someone who has just done something very bad and which has serious consequences.

PRESENTATION 7.1. Definition

(I.1) (I.2) (I.3)

Intonation is “the rise and fall of the voice” or “the tune of speech.” Three basic English tunes:

Falling intonation. Rising intonation Sustained intonation

Intonation refers to pitch levels over an entire utterance. All languages have

intonation. Our voices are continually changing in pitch as we produce sentences.

7.2. Functions of Intonation

Intonation in English can have a grammatical function, such as indicating a

question, or an attitudinal function, such as indicating certainty or uncertainty. 7.2.1. Grammatical Function of Intonation

7.2.1.1. Falling Intonation The falling intonation can signal the end of a statement.

Classes will start on Tuesday.

Wh- questions usually also have a falling intonation.

Where did you find it?

Falling intonation marks the last items in a closed list.

We need bread, eggs, and milk.

Falling intonation is also used for imperatives. 7.2.1.2. Rising Intonation The rising intonation often indicates a Yes/ No question.

Will you go with us?

The rising intonation is also used in an echo question, even when the question

is a wh-question.

Where are we going?

The rising intonation is also used for a non-final item in a closed list.

We need bread, eggs, and milk…

The rising intonation is also used for imperatives as requests or statements as

remarks of any emotion.

7.2.1.3. Sustained Intonation Sustained intonation is the combination of falling and rising tunes. One of the most frequent complex clause types in English is one that has dependent clause followed by an independent (main) clause. The first, non-final, normally has (slightly) rising tone while the second, final, has falling tone.

As for tag questions, if the speaker is certain that the answer is Yes, the statement has falling tone and the tail receives falling tone, too. If the speaker doesn’t know the answer, the statement has falling tone while the tail receives rising tone. 7.2.2. Attitudinal Function of Intonation

A falling tone is by far the most common used tone of all. It signals a sense of finality, completion, belief in the content of the utterance, and so on. A speaker, by choosing a falling tone, also indicates to the addressee that that is all he has to say, and offers a chance (turn-taking) to the addressee to comment on, agree or disagree with, or add to his utterance.

If the speaker uses a rising tone, we may think that he/ she is asking for a

repetition or clarification, or indicating disbelief.

1. The word “yes” can be said with different intonation to indicate difference attitude as follows.

For example,

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- Rising tune sounds like a question. - Falling tune sounds definite. - Falling-rising tune suggests hesitation or uncertainty. 2. Intonation alone can change the meaning of the word "what" in the following interchanges: "I just ate it." "What?" (Slightly rising intonation in - i.e., Repeat your statement.) "I just ate it." "What?" (Slight falling intonation - i.e., What did you eat?) "The caterpillar." "What?" (Extra high intonation - i.e., Surprise or disbelief.)

EXERCISES I.  Listen to the recording and circle “?” for a question or “.” for a statement.

5. 6.

? .

He’s from Singapore ? . She has blue eyes ? . He’s from San Francisco ? . He has brown eyes ? . They work for the same company They’re sisters

? .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

II.  Listen to the questions and decide whether they are Wh questions or Yes/ No questions.

Wh question / Yes No question Wh question / Yes No question Wh question / Yes No question Wh question / Yes No question Wh question / Yes No question Wh question / Yes No question

III.  Listen to the Tag Questions decide whether the speaker is sure or not sure about the answer.

It’s an MD player, isn’t it? Sure / Not Sure You have a computer, don’t you? Sure / Not Sure You put it in here, didn’t you? Sure / Not Sure

You press this button, don’t you? Sure / Not Sure You turned it off, didn’t you? Sure / Not Sure

IV. Read the following text aloud with correct intonation. 1.

A: How did you spend your vacation? B: I went to Venice. A: Was it expensive? B: Yes, very. A: That's the person who robbed the bank! B: Do you mean the man with the black pants? A: No. The woman with the plastic bag. A: Can I help you? B: I'd like a chocolate ice-cream. A: One chocolate ice-cream. Anything else? B: One strawberry ice-cream. A: One chocolate, one strawberry. Anything else? B: Yes. One chocolate, one strawberry, and one vanilla.

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Unit 8

Sentence Stress and Rhythm

Objectives

By the end of the lesson the students are able to put proper stress within

sentences and to produce utterances rhythmically.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Định nghĩa và xác định trọng âm của câu, nhịp điệu của lời nói; Thực

hành phát âm đúng trọng âm, ngữ điệu và nhịp điệu

LEAD IN

Read the following text as you are talking to someone. “Last summer I went to Oxford to study English in a large school. I was in Oxford for two months. I stayed with an English family who live quite close to the city centre. Mrs. Taylor works as a solicitor, and her husband has a good job in an insurance company.

I enjoyed being at the language school. I met students of many different nationalities - Japanese, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish. The teacher were very nice and taught me a lot, but I didn’t like doing so much homework!”

PRESENTATION 8.1. Sentence Stress 8.1.1. Definition Sentence stress is a prominence with which one or more words in a sentence

are pronounced (as compared with the other words of the same sentence)

8.1.2. Levels of Stress

In connected speech, words are not treated as separated units. When a word becomes a member of a sentence, word -stress may be either preserved or lost, weakened or lengthened, but it does not remain unchanged as compared with the stress the word has when used in isolation. The degree of prominence that a word has in a sentence is different. We can assume that there are three distinct levels of stress in the sentence: primary (main) stress, secondary stress, non-stress (or unstressed).

e.g. He will 'come in a 'day. unstressed secondary stress primary/main stress He, him, in, a: come: day:

Actually, any word in the sentence can receive the primary stress. However, as a rule, words with a certain lexical meaning have an important semantic function in the sentence and are, therefore, usually stressed. To such words belong nouns, adjectives, numerals, notional verbs, adverbs, demonstrative, interrogative and negative words.

Words which serve to express certain grammatical relations or categories in the sentence are either stressed or unstressed. These include auxiliaries, modals, prepositions, conjunctions, article particles, pronouns.

The normal tendency in English speech is for the primary stress to occur on the stressed syllable of the last stress group, which corresponds to the principle of end-focus in communication.

Emphasis Emphasis is used to show extra emotion in our speech. By giving extra stress to different words in an English sentence, we can actually change the meaning of the sentence. To do this, we give them emphasis with an even higher tone, a longer stressed syllable, and louder sound than a normally-stressed word.

+ We can show strong emotion with emphasis by raising the tone even more,

making the stressed syllable even longer, and increasing the volume.

How'd you like the art exhibit? ~ I LOVED it!

Example

(Regular stress is underlined, and emphasis is marked in CAPITALS.) + We can change the meaning with emphasis by comparing the emphasized

word with it's opposite (either within the sentence or not there).

Example

+ We also use emphasis to change the focus of the conversation, so old information is not emphasized. Notice how none of the repeated words are emphasized unless they're part of a compound that makes a different word. Andy: I'm going to the store. Kris: What are you going to BUY? Andy: A book. Kris: Oh. So you're going to the BOOKstore. Andy: Yeah. Kris: What KIND of book are you getting? Andy: A COOKbook. Kris: What do you want to cook? Andy: I'm going to cook a pot roast.

I'm going to the store. (Regular stress on the last content word of the sentence) I'M going to the store. (Not YOU, but ME!) I AM going to the store. (You're not going to the store. I AM!) I'm GOING to the store. (Have you GONE to the store? ~ No, I'm GOING to the store.) I'm going TO the store. (not coming FROM it) I'm going to THE store. (THE store=favorite or only store, known to both speaker and listener.) I'm going to the STORE. (not the mall) I’m going to the LARGE store, not the SMALL one.

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Kris: Do you HAVE a pot roast? Andy: No, I'll have to go to the store to GET one.

When you ask a question using emphasis on only one part of the question phrase, such as "What KIND of book?", think about what answer you want when you choose which word to emphasize. Another example is "-- How MANY books? -- THREE books." The Stress Group In many languages, not all words in an utterance receive a stress. English is a case in point: in uttering the sentence Bill was at a conference, a speaker is very likely to leave the words was, at, and a unstressed. There will thus be two stresses in the sentence: on bill and on the first syllable of conference. The unstressed words can, in this instance, be associated with the stressed word next to them to form a further phonological relevant unit, the unit often referred to as a "stress group". In this example, there are two stress-groups: Bill and was at a conference.

8.2. Rhythm

The rhythm involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time; one can detect the rhythm of a heart-beat, of a flashing light or of a piece of music. It has often been claimed that English speech is rhythmical, and that the rhythm id detectable in the regular occurrence of stressed syllables; of course, it is not suggested that the timing is as regular as a clock - the regularity of occurrence is only relative. The theory that English has stress - timed rhythm implies that stressed syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular intervals of time whether they are separated by unstressed syllable or not.

In the following sentence the stressed syllables are given numbers: syllable 1 and 2 are not separated by any unstressed syllables, 2 and 3 are separated by one unstressed syllable, 3 and 4 by two, 4 and 5 by three.

1 2 3 4 5 ' Walk 'down the ' path to the 'end of the ca'nal The stress-timed rhythm theory states that the time from each stressed syllable to the next will tend to be the same, irrespective of the number of intervening unstressed syllables.

Pauses in Speech

In written English, we use punctuation to show where the pauses in the sentences should be. When we speak English, our listeners don't see the punctuation, but we don't generally run all the words together in a stream of equally-emphasized words either; we group words by their meaning, and pause between them. This allows us to speak in phrases or thought groups, and to pause just after important information that we emphasize.

If we are speaking slower and clearer, the phrases are shorter, but if we are speaking fast, the phrases are longer and we don't emphasize as many words. It's

important to know where to put the pauses in the sentences so that you can sound more like a native-speaker.

Thought groups are generally formed by the grammar. Here are some

examples.

Noun phrases the obsolete software Amy and Peter

Short subject and verb Mary walked The boy smiled

Verb phrases jogged joyfully seemed correct

Prepositional phrases

in the laboratory with the hammer to the mall

Relative Clauses ...woman who wore glasses, was... ...book that I read, is...

Parenthetical remarks phrases (or thought groups) are... this is, in fact, an example.

Between each thought group, the speaker needs to pause. There are some pauses that are longer and more important than others. These would be marked with commas "," semi-colons ";" colons ":" and periods "." in writing, and will ALMOST ALWAYS be pauses, no matter how fast the person is speaking. The other pauses will be there if it's slower speech but might not be if it's faster speech.

Sometimes if you can imagine the punctuation that would be there in writing,

it helps you know where to pause for a breath.

For example,

room temperature. //

Finally, // each time you prepare the solution, // you should take into account / the Don't mix these two liquids together / unless they temperature of the liquids. // have the same temperature: // After they reach the same temperature, // then you can mix them together / and get the starting temperature.

In summary, when we read a sentence normally (without giving any word extra emphasis), each thought group (phrase) in a sentence has one word that is most stressed. This word is the last content word in that phrase. The last content word in the last phrase of the sentence is said to be the most stressed in the sentence.

Below you can hear two sentences read slowly and deliberately as if they

were said in a presentation.

The noisy car / has been parked / in the garAGE.

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Many people / often read / the business section / of the NEWSpaper. ("business section" and "newspaper" are compound nouns.) When they are said more rapidly, there will be fewer pauses and less stress

on the content words.

The noisy car has been parked in the garAGE. Many people often read the business section of the NEWSpaper. The more slowly you speak, and the more pauses you use, the easier it is to

understand you and to hear the important elements of your sentences.

EXERCISES

A. Answer the questions. 1. What is a sentence stress? What kinds of words are normally stressed in communication? What kinds of words are not normally stressed in communication? 2. What is rhythm? What is the difference between types of assimilation

between syllable-timed rhythm and stress-timed rhythm?

B. Decide whether the following statements are true or false 1. Lexical words are not normally stressed in communication. 2. Words which serve to express certain grammatical relations or categories in

the sentence are either stressed or unstressed.

3. The normal tendency in English speech is for the primary stress to occur on

the last syllable of the tone group.

STRESSED WORDS (capitalized ones) do you LIKE COFFEE would you LIKE a COFFEE I THINK that he WANTS to GO I DON'T THINK so LONDON is the CAPITAL of BRITAIN have you EVER SEEN this FILM WHERE can we GO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. Each speech has the tendency of syllable-timed rhythm. C. Read the sentences, focusing on the sentence stress. Sentence Do you like coffee? Would you like a coffee? I think he wants to go. I don't think so. London is the capital of Britain. Have you ever seen this film? Where can we go? D. Write 10 FALSE sentences. They could be about anything, as only as they are not true. Next read the statements to your partner and the partner must correct each of the incorrect statements.

For example: - Christmas is in July.

- No, Christmas is in December.

E.  Listen to the following sentences. The content words are capitalized. They're stressed. The function words do not change the rhythm of the sentence.

 GRADS GRADS GRADS GRADS GRADS

The The The

have will could have could have been

 FOUND FOUND FIND FOUND FINDing

 JOBS. JOBS. JOBS. JOBS. JOBS.

In the following dialogue, two colleagues are discussing hotel F.  accommodations for a conference. Function words are absent. Content words are stressed. Listen and try to make the same dialogue.

--- --- know --- --- possible --- share --- hotel room --- --- conference?

What--- --- deal --- two people?

A: B: Yeah, --- heard --- --- --- couple --- options. One --- --- room --- two --- --- other --- --- room --- three. A: B: --- three-night package --- two --- $250 plus tax. --- --- make --- reservation?

G. Read the text aloud. Then, listen to check your stress and intonation. caps = primary word stress / = thought group › = link ↓ = fall ↓↑ = fall and rise LIar!↓ ProFESsor says ↓↑ / we all tell 200 fibs › a day ↓ LONdon DAIly TElegraph↓ LONdon↓ — We all tell 200 lies › Every day, ↓↑ / new REsearch* has › shown ↓↑ / — and life would be NIGHTmare ↓↑ / if we DIdn't.↓ These range from small › UNtruths ↓↑ / or white lies, ↓↑ / to deLIberate deCEPtions ↓↑ / and › the ocCAsional "WHOPper", ↓↑ / acCORding to AMErican psyCHOlogist ↓↑ / GErald JELlison.↓ JELlison, ↓↑ / proFESsor › of psyCHOlogy at › the UniVERsity of South CaliFORnia, ↓↑ / disCOvered that lies were BEing told › on such › a grand scale ↓↑ / AFter PUTting MIcrophones › on › a STUdy group › of 20 PEOp(e)le ↓↑ / as they went › aBOUT their day-to-day tasks.↓ ANAlysis › of the tapes reVEAled ↓↑ / that › an › Average › of one lie ↓↑ / was told › Every eight MInutes.↓ Worst › ofFENders ↓↑ / were those who had the most SOcial CONtact ↓↑ / and were forced › to make deMANDS › on PEOp(e)le.↓ STORE clerks,↓↑ / DOCtors' reCEPtionists,↓↑ / poliTIcians,↓↑ /

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JOURnalists,↓↑ / soLIcitors,↓↑ / SALESmen ↓↑ / and psyCHOlogists ↓↑ / all fall › INto this CAtegory.↓ "OFten ↓↑ / what we are TALKing › aBOUT are VEry small › lies, ↓↑ / but they are lies nonetheLESS," ↓↑ / said JELlison ↓↑ / — who conTENDS LYing › is CRUcial ↓↑ / to the NORmal FUNCtioning ↓↑ / of soCIety. ↓ (Note: *REsearch; reSEARCH - are both correct)

Unit 9: Phonological Rules

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students are able to apply some principles

that govern the use of English speech sounds to listening and speaking.

Chuẩn đầu ra của bài học:

Chỉ ra các quy luật phát âm; Thực hành phiên âm và phát âm ứng dụng

các quy luật phát âm

LEAD-IN Transcribe the following words phonemically. come in handbag

have to to four must be give me and

PRESENTATION 9.1. Linking Rules

In connected speech, we sometimes link words together. This often happens when two vowels occur next to each other across word boundaries. There are different ways to link words together, of which the most common is the use of linking r and intrusive r. 9.1.1 Linking a Consonant to a Vowel

Rule 1: When a word ends in two consonants and the next begins with a

vowel, the final consonant sounds like the initial consonant of the following word.

send it sounds like sen dit camp out sounds like cam pout Rule 2: When a word ends in a single consonant and the next begins with a

vowels, the consonant straddles the two syllables.

push up stop it come in take off

9.1.2. Linking a Vowel to a Vowel

Rule 1: When a word ending in /i:/, /aɪ/, /eɪ/, /ɔɪ/ is followed by another word

beginning with a vowel, the two words are connected by a /j/ glide.

play a game, tie it up, employ a professional,… Rule 2: When a word ending in /u:/, /aʊ/, /əʊ/ is followed by another word

beginning with a vowel, the two words are connected by a /w/ glide.

through it all, slow and steady, How are you?,…

Rule 3: Linking r The phoneme /r/ cannot occur in syllable-final position in RP English, but when a word's spelling suggests a final /r/, and a word beginning with a vowel follows, the usual pronunciation for RP speakers is to pronounce the word with final /r/ -51-

"four eggs" [ fɔ:r egz ] " far away" [fa:r əweɪ ] but but

"four" / fɔ: / / fa: / "far" * Intrusive /r/ Many speakers use /r/ in a similar way to link words ending with a vowel

even when there is no "justification" from the spelling.

Formula A [ 'fɔ:mju:lər eɪ ] ['ɪndɪər ɒ'f ɪs ] India office law and order [lɔ:rændɔ:də] The intrusive /r/ is regarded as sub-standard pronunciation among English

speakers, but it is widespread. 9.1.3. Linking a Consonant to a Consonant

Rule 1: When a stop is followed by another stop or affricate, the first stop is

not released or aspirated. top ten, hot cake,… Rule 2: If the consonants are identical, the consonant is somewhat lengthened,

the two consonant are not articulated separately.

keep practicing, less serious, hot tea, common names,…

9.2. Assimilation Rules

Definition: Assimilation is a common process in which neighbouring sounds

tend to affect each other and make them similar to each other.

- Assimilation is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely

in slow, careful speech.

- Assimilation often occurs across word boundaries. However, similar affects are also observable : across morpheme boundaries (cat.s /k æ t.s/  [k æ t.z]), and within the morpheme (bank /b æ nk/ [b æ ŋk]).

- Assimilation affects consonants only. Consonants can be described in terms of three features of voicing, place and manner. In rapid speech processes, any of these three features can be changed.

- If the first sound changes to be more like the second, the process is called regressive assimilation; if the second consonant changes to be more like the first, the process is called is called progressive assimilation.

A. Assimilation of Place: (regressive and progressive) 1. Before labials /p, b, m/, /t, d, n/ is realized as [p, b, m] respectively.

 [ ð æp bɔɪ ]

that boy good man ten players / ð æt bɔɪ / /g ʊd m æn/ [g ʊb mæn] /ten pleɪ əz/  [tem pleɪ əz]

2. Before velars /k, g/, /t, d, n/ is realized as [k, g, ŋ] respectively.

 one game /wʌn geɪm/ [wʌŋ geɪm]

3. After alveolars /t, d, n/ , / / ð/ is realized as [t, d, n] respectively.

read these /ri:d ði:z/  [ri:d di:z]

B. Assimilation of Manner: (regressive only)

Assimilation of manner is most likely to be towards an "easier" consonant _

  /top məʊst/ /gɪv mi:/ [tom məʊst] [gɪm mi:]

 [g ʊn nj u: z]

 [ð æs saɪd]  [ð æz zu:] / ð æt saɪd / /ð æt zu:/

one which makes less obstruction to the airflow. 1. Before /m/, /p, v/ is realized as [m]. top most give me 2. Before /n/, /d/ is realized as [n]. /g ʊd nj u: z/ good news 3. Before /s, z/, /t/ is realized as [s, z] respectively. that side that zoo C. Assimilation of Voice: (regressive only) Usually a voiced consonant becomes voiceless if the word that follows it begins with a voiceless consonant. The contrary, i.e. a voiceless consonant becoming voiced if followed by a voiced consonant, never occurs.

 [ɒf kɔ:s ]  [ hæf tu: ]

 [penz]

/ ɒv kɔ:s / of course have to / hæv tu: / In a syllable-final consonant cluster: (progressive) /pens/ pens * Coalescence

Coalescence is the combining of two sounds to become one. When the consonants /s, z, t, d/ are followed by /j/, the two sounds combine to

form a palatalized consonant [ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ] respectively.

this year want you / ðɪs jɪər/ /wɒnt ju:/  [ðɪʃ ɪər]  [wɒnʧ u:]

9.3. Feature Addition Rules Aspiration Rule Stop voiceless consonants /p, t, k/ become aspirated when they begin a

syllable and are followed by a stressed vowel.

pepper  [`phepə ]

appear  [ə `phɪə] Nasalization Rule All vowels in English become nasalized when they precede a nasal

consonant.

sing  [s ĩ ŋ ]

men  [mẽn] Flapping Stop alveolar consonants /t, d / become an alveolar flap /D/ when they occur between two vowels, the first of which is stressed and the second of which is unstressed. writer  [`raɪDə] /`raɪtə/

9.4. Deletion Rule (Elision )

In certain circumstances a phoneme may be realized as zero, or have zero

realization. Like assimilation, elision is typical of rapid, casual speech.

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'teɪtəʊ]

9.4.1. Deletion of Weak Vowel + After p, t, k In words like potato, tomato, canary, perhaps, today, the vowel in the first syllable may disappear; the aspiration of the initial plosive takes up the whole of the middle portion of the syllable.

/pə'teɪtəʊ/ / tə'naɪt / / pə'li:s /  [ph  [ thn'aɪt ]  [ phl 'i:s ]

[`neɪ∫n] [`lɪtl]  

potato tonight police + Before n, l, r Weak vowel + / n, l, r /  syllabic consonant /`neɪ∫ən/ nation /`lɪtəl/ little 9.4. 2. Deletion of Consonants + Avoidance of complex consonant clusters Two commonly deleted consonants are the alveolar plosives, /t/ and /d/ /t/ is deleted when all the three following conditions are met:

[m ʌs bi:]

- it is in the coda of a syllable - it occurs between two other consonants - the first of these surrounding is voiceless  must be  [neks mʌnθ] next month  [resləs] restless

/m ʌst bi:/ /nekst mʌnθ/ /restləs/ /d/ when both of the following conditions are met:

- it is in the coda - it occurs between two consonants find someone / faɪnd sʌmwʌn/  [faɪn sʌmwʌn]

/lɒt əv ðəm/  [lɒt ə ðəm]

it occurs in an unstressed function word. It is not at the beginning of the utterance

/`get hɪm/ 

[`get hɪm]  + Deletion of final v in "of" before consonants lots of them + Deletion of /h/ /h/ may be deleted when both of the following conditions are met: - - get him find his book / `faɪnd hɪz `bʊk/ [ `faɪnd ɪz `bʊk]

9.5. Reduction Rules

Function words tend not to receive stress in utterances. Many function words _ articles, pronouns, prepositions, as well as auxiliary verbs_ have two phonological shapes: a citation form, which is used when the word is being read in a list or on the rare occasions when it is stressed; and a weak form, which is generally its most common form. Weak forms, like unstressed syllables in words,

are generally shorter and less loud than stressed monosyllabic words, and they tend to have reduced vowels, usually a schwa /ə/, which is a weak vowel sound.

The table below gives some examples of common function words and

auxiliary verbs with their citation forms and weak forms in transcription.

Word Weak form Word

a am an and are as at but can could does for from has Citation form /eɪ/ /æm/ /æn/ /ænd/ /a:/ /æz/ /æt/ /bʌt/ /kæn/ /kʊd/ /dʌz/ /fɔ:/ /frɒm/ /hæz/ [ə] [əm] [ən] [ənd] [ə] [əz] [ət] [bət] [kən] [kəd] [dəz] [fə] [frəm] [həz] have must of shall should some than that the them then there to was Citation form /hæv/ /mʌst/ /ɒv/ /ʃæl/ /ʃʊd/ /sʌm/ /ðæn/ /ðæt/ /ði:/ /ðem/ /ðen/ /ðeə/ /tu:/ /wɒz/ Weak form [həv] [məst] [əv] [ʃəl] [ʃəd] [səm] [ðən] [ðət] [ðə] [ðəm] [ðən] [ðə] [tə] [wəz]

9.6. Combined Processes

Phonological processes in rapid speech are assumed to occur in a particular

order. In other words, the rules are ordered.

For example, handbag /hændbæg/ may be pronounced as [hæmbæg], involving two processes: the deletion of /d/ and the assimilation of the alveolar nasal /n/ to the following bilabial plosive /b/ to produce a bilabial nasal /m/. The /d/ must be deleted first before the bilabial plosive can make the preceding nasal assimilate.

More example,

Phonemic level:

Vowel Nasalization: Nasal deletion: Phonetic Level: Can’t /kænt/ kænt kæt [kæt]

EXERCISES A. Answer the questions.

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1. What is assimilation? Give examples of different types of assimilation in

2. In what condition is a vowel nasalized? 3. What is elision? Give examples of different types of elision in English. 4. Give examples for each of the phonological rules in English.

English.

1..A.1.1. Assimilation is said to be complete when the articulation of the

B. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

1..A.1.2. Assimilation is said to be regressive when the preceding consonant

assimilated consonant fully coincide with that of the assimilating consonant.

influences the articulation pf the following consonant.

1..A.1.3. each other.

1..A.1.4. Elision is the case of a sound realized as zero in casual, rapid speech.

In accommodation, the pronunciation of two consonants influences

1. The beer is here on the table. 2. He can hear us, too. 3. A mountaineer always drinks beer in the mountains. 4. Claire and Mary have only one pair of shoes. 5. They're under a table. 6. They’ve found it everywhere in the house. 7. They used to work twelve hours a day. 8. A cup of tea? 9. I meet her once in a while. 10. How is she? 11. Who ate the cake? 12. They know it all. 13. There's a boy in the room 14. I’ll stay there a day and a half. 15. He may arrive early.

C. Make the linking when necessary.

D. What two words these following symbols stand for?

[ðæp pз: sn] [laɪp blu:] [ðæk keɪs] [ðəʊʒ ɪəz] [ɪn nə] [get təm] [ri:d di:z]

1. I only use white paper. 2. She’s a good girl. 3. I'll kiss you, feed you, tease you, bet you.

       E. Transcribe these sentences phonetically.

4. What you need is a good job. 5. Read these youth pages. 6. The top most popular singers are in this show. 7. Good night. 8. Would you like a short course or long course? 9. She didn’t go to France that year. 10. The Nile is the longest river in the world.

F. Decide which aspect of connected speech is present.

 /dəʊtʃə/ 9. I used to  /fər ə/

 /aɪ `ju:stə/ 10. Over America  /əʊvər ə`merɪkə/ 11. Rather than go  /rɑ:ðə ðəŋ `gəʊ/

 /`hædʒu/

 /nɒˈtʃu:/

15. Did you go?  /dɪdʒu `gəʊ/

1. Don’t you 2. For a 3. Good place  /gʊp pleɪs/  / `mʌs `get/ 12. Had you? 4. Must get 5. Last year  /`lɑ:tʃɪə/ 13. Were either  /wər aɪðə/ 6. Wouldn’t talk  /wʊdn `tɔ:k/ 14. Not you! 7. Went through  /wen θru:/ 8. 9. [`aʊə `khʌzn mʌst ə `trævl tə `greIp `brɪtn la:s `sΛmə]

It had green ears  /ɪt hæg `gri:n ɪəz/

G. Listen, identify what kind of assimilation applied, and then repeat the

1. What did you do? 2. I only got back from Europe yesterday. 3. I'll have to get a job over the holidays. 4. And I hope that this year will be no exception. 5. What time would you like to have your interview? 6. The loan period for books is about a month. 7. The International Student Advisor will probably direct you to our library

sentences.

8. Ah, the library Services are of course in the library which is over to my

services staff.

9. Susan is going to get married next month.

right.

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REFERENCES

[1] Delahunty, G. P. & Garvey, J. J. (1994).

Language, Grammar, and

[2] Deterding, D. H. et all (1998). The Sounds of English. Prentice Hall.

Communication. McGraw-Hill, Inc.

[3] Lê Văn Sự. (2000). English Linguistics 1: Phonetics and Phonology. Nxb

Singapore.

[4] O'Grady, et al. (1995) Contemporary Linguistics. St Martins's Press.

[5] Parker, F. & Riley, K. (?). Linguistics for Non- Linguists. Allymand Bacon.

[6] Roach, P. (1991). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge: CUP.

Đồng Nai.

GLOSSARY

âm tắc xát (also scratching or scratcher sound) âm tố (biến thể âm vị) âm lợi âm ngạc lợi âm cận tiếp âm bật hơi quy luật đồng hoá nguyên âm sau âm hai môi

(phụ âm) răng tiếng địa phương nguyên âm đôi

âm thanh hầu (nguyên âm) cao / hẹp (âm) hít vào

affricate: allophone: alveolar: alveopalatal: approximant: aspirate: assimilation rule: back vowel: bilabial: broad transcription: phiên âm thoáng (nguyên âm) giữa central: sáp nhập âm vị coalescence: coda: kết âm complementary distribution : thế phân bố bổ sung phụ âm consonant: continuous sound: âm liên tục contrastive (also distinctive): khu biệt dental: dialect: diphthong: distinctive feature: nét khu biệt thế phân bố distribution: (âm) thở ra egressive: hiện tượng thêm âm epenthesis: âm cuối final: âm vỗ flapped: biến thể tự do free variant: âm xát (also "hissing" or "hisser sounds") fricative: front : (nguyên âm) trước glide (also semivowel): âm lướt glottal: high (vowel): ingressive: interdental (also dental): phụ âm răng intonation: labiolazation: labiodental: lateral: ngữ điệu môi hoá (phụ âm) môi răng (phụ âm) bên

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thanh quản âm lơi (lenis) âm lỏng độ vang (nguyên âm) thấp / rộng âm tiết chính

âm đệm cặp (từ) tối thiểu nguyên âm đơn đơn tiết

âm mũi âm chính

khởi âm khoang miệng ngạc (phụ âm) ngạc ngạc hoá yết hầu âm vị ngữ âm học âm vị học (phonemics) kết âm học độ cao đường nét âm điệu

larynx: lax: liquid: loudness: low : main syllable: manner of articulation: phương thức cấu âm medial: minimal pair: monophthong: monosyllable: narrow transcription: phiên âm sát nasal: nucleus: obligatory variant: biến thể bắt buộc onset: oral cavity: palate: palatal: palatalization: pharynx: phoneme: phonetics: phonology: phonotactics: pitch: pitch contour: place of articulation: điểm cấu âm plosive: retroflex: rhyme: rhythm: rounded: segment: segmental: sonorant: sound: stop: stress: âm nổ/ âm tắc (stop) âm quặt lưỡi vần nhịp (âm) tròn môi âm đoạn đoạn tính âm vang âm, âm tố (speech sound) âm tắc trọng âm

syllable: syllabic: tense: tension: timbre: tone: tongue: transcription: triphthong: unaspirated: unrounded: unstressed: uvula: uvular: variant: velar: velum: vocal cord: voiced sound: voiceless sound: vowel: âm tiết âm tiết tính âm căng (fortis) độ căng âm sắc thanh lưỡi sự phiên âm nguyên âm ba không bật hơi (nguyên âm) không tròn môi không có trọng âm lưỡi con âm lưỡi con biến thể âm mạc ngạc mềm dây thanh âm âm hữu thanh âm vô thanh nguyên âm