VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR BOOK

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FISHERIES UNIVERSITY NHA TRANG, VIETAM ENGLISH FOR AQUACULTURE VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR BOOK BY MANON FRENETTE WUSC (World University Service of Canada) 2005

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FISHERIES UNIVERSITY NHA TRANG, VIETAM ENGLISH FOR AQUACULTURE VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR BOOK BY MANON FRENETTE WUSC (World University Service of Canada) 2005
TABLE OF CONTENT UNIT ONE…………….………………..…………………………………………..Word Formation UNIT ONE.……...………………..…..……………Verb Tense Review –Active and Passive Voice UNIT TWO…………………………..…..………………..Sentence Structure –Complex Sentences UNIT TWO……..…………………..………………………..Sentence Structure –Reduced Clauses UNIT THREE….………………….…………………………..…Sentence structure –Signal Words UNIT FOUR….………………………………………………..…Writing and Verbalizing Numbers UNIT FOUR……………………….……………………..…………Describing trends in the Market UNIT FIVE………………………..…………………………………………….List of clinical signs APPENDICES APPENDIX ONE…….…..……………………….……………Academic and Aquaculture Glossary APPENDIX TWO…………..……………………...…………………..Acronyms and Abbreviations APPENDIX THREE……….………………………...………………..…..Complementary Materials APPENDIX FOUR…….…….………………………..………….......................Academic Word List 2
UNIT ONE: WORD FORMATION One way to improve your reading comprehension, pronunciation and spelling is to increase your understanding of common word parts. These word parts –also known as prefixes, suffixes and roots- are building blocks used in forming many English words. RECOGNIZING SUFFIXES, THEIR PARTS OF SPEECH AND MEANINGS Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs -ance/-ence -ing -ize -able -ly -or/-er -ment -ate -ible -ist/-yst -ity -fy -less -ian -ism/ship -en -ic -tion/-ation -dom -ify -ical -ness -ion -ish -ive What is a noun? A word or group of words that represent a person (Professor Dung), a place(Halong Bay), a thing or activity (a net or fishing) or a quality or idea (danger or over-fishing). Noun-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples Vietnamese -ance state importance, reliance -ence quality existence, subsistence -er,-or a person who, a thing which factor, farmer -ist, -yst a person who, pertaining to aquaculturist -ian pertaining to/related to reptilian -tion, -ation the act of, condition of pollution, propagation, importation -ion action-state expansion -ing activity fishing, rearing, ranching -ment state, action impoundment, environment -ity state, quality opportunity, quality, security -ism condition/state microorganism -dom domain/condition freedom -ship condition/state relationship Note: Nouns that do not use suffixes can often be used both as nouns and adjectives… 3
What is an adjective? A word that describes a noun or pronoun as in ‘. In English, adjectives are placed in front of nouns (rare species) OR after the verb “to be”(This species is rare). Adjectives do not take the plural form, no –s. Adjective-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples Vietnamese -al commercial, recreational -ar having the quality of particular -ic aquatic, scientific -ical critical -ed high-priced, controlled, limited -ive extensive -able/-ible capable of being sustainable, edible -ous like, full of various, tremendous -ful characterized by neglectful -less without priceless -ish like brackish Note: Word ending in –ing are formed from verbs (present participle = V-ing). The –ing form may be used as a noun, adjective, part of a noun phrase, or part of a verb. What is a verb? A word or group of words that is used to describe an action, experience, or state for example “come”, “see”, “be”, “put on”. Verb-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples Vietnamese -ize/-ise fertilize -ate To make stimulate, irrigate -ify verify -en widen Note: The easiest way to recognize a verb is to know how verbs are formed. We will take a closer look at this a little later in the course. To quickly review verb forms look at p. What is an adverb? A word or group of words that describe or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence, such as “slowly” in “he ran slowly”, “very” in “It’s very hot”, or “naturally” in “Naturally, we want you to come”. Most often adverbs finish in –ly: widely, relatively, frequently, sufficiently, economically, commercially. Here is also a list of common adverbs that do not finish in –ly : always, often, sometimes, never, very, well… 4
RECOGNIZING PREFIXES AND THEIR MEANINGS Prefix Meaning Examples Vietnamese Ab off, away from Abnormal Bio life biology Mono alone, one monoculture Poly many polyculture Micro very small microscope Mini small minimum Maxi Big maximum Trans across, over, beyond transgenic Dis apart, away disinfect, disappear Pre before predict Inter between, among interbreeding Sub under, below subdivide Ex out exterminate Mis badly, wrong misinterpret Con together, with conform Post after, following post-larvae Anti against Antibiotics Pro before (time, place, order) problem in front of, instead of protect onward, for project Un not, reverse uncover Ad to, toward advance In (im, ir, il*) not, without, lacking insufficient (not) In, on, into, towards, within infer (within) Extra more than extraordinary Re again, back represent Mal bad malfunction Com with, together with comply De down, from decompose Patho disease pathogen * im- before b, m, p, ir- before r, il- before –l 5
ROOTS A root is a basic word to which prefixes, suffixes, or both are added. For example, to the root word port (meaning carry), the prefix –trans (meaning across) could be added: the resulting word, transport, means to carry across. Various suffixes could also be added, among them the verb or adjective suffix –ed (transported), -able (transportable), and the noun suffix ation(transportation). Root Meaning Examples Vietnamese Duc (duct) take, lead reduce Mit (miss) send, let go submit Port carry export Voc call advocate Tract (trac) draw attract Auto self automatic Path feeling, organ pathogen Cept (capt) take, seize accept Dict (dic) say, tell, speak indicate Vers (vert) turn vertical Tang (tact) touch tactile Cess (ced) go, move, yield precede Sist stand resist Gress go progress Pend (pens) hang, weigh depend Psych mind psychology Vid (vis) see visibility Spec (spic) look spectator Graph write graphic Troph nutrient trophic EXERCISE Underline the prefix and circle the suffix in each of the following words. Can you guess the meaning and the part of speech? transparent antiseptic replacement disable predict subdivision automatic distract conducive deceptive portable interpretation 6
UNIT ONE: REVIEW OF TENSES Active and passive voice in Academic writing Academic writing is still English. But there are a few differences. One of those differences is the frequency of the use of the passive voice. Academic writing differs because often the doer of the action, the subject, is not important or not what the writer wants to emphasize. Therefore, the active voice needs to be used. The active voice is still used most of the time, but the passive voice is more common than in other forms of writing. Let us look at subjects. A subject is important for two reasons: First, it is placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause so the reader pays attention to it. Second, a subject, in the active voice, indicates who or what is doing the action. In the following example, it is the fact that Mary is the person doing the study that is important, what she actually studies is less important to the reader. Mary Stein (subject) studies the relationship between weather patterns and water quality (object). But what can be done if it is “the relationship between weather patterns and water quality”, in other words, the object, that needs to be emphasized? That is when the passive voice is used. Compare the difference in meaning between the first example with the following one : Active: Mary Stein is researching the relationship between weather patterns and water quality. Passive: The relationship between weather patterns and water quality is being researched (by Mary Stein). Sometimes, when there is no need to mention who or what is doing the action, the subject, like in the example above, the subject from the active voice could be omitted in the passive voice. Therefore, academic writing avoids using subjects like I, technicians, or scientists because it is too general but also because the writer wants to emphasize the object of the active voice. By placing the object of the active voice at the beginning, the reader then focuses on what is important. HOW TO CHANGE VOICE: 1. IDENTIFY THE SUBJECT, OBJECT, AND VERB FORM: To change a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice, you need to have a subject, a verb and a direct object. If you do not have a direct object, you cannot transform the sentence into the passive voice. If you have two objects, you select only one. 2. INVERSE THE ORDER OF THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT 3. CHANGE THE VERB FORM: I ACTIVE VOICE Subject (doer) + Verb + Object The farmer feeds the fish every day PASSIVE VOICE Object+ “Be”+ Past Part.+ Subject The fish + is fed (by the farmer)every day 7
A good way to recognize if a sentence is in the active or passive voice is to look at the form of the verb. The passive is always formed by the auxiliary BE which is conjugated and the past participle form of the verb (–ed for reg. v. 3rd column for irr. v.)whereas the active voice is formed as follows: 1. Simple tenses (simple present, past, and future) 1. Used for permanent situations, facts, repeated actions 2. Subject + Auxiliary do-does/did/will* + base form of the verb *Except for the affirmative voice of the simple present and simple past (subject + verb). 2. Progressive tenses (present, past and future progressive/continuous) 1. Used for temporary situations 2. Subject +Auxiliary be (was-were/is-are/will be) +present participle (-ing form) 3. Perfect tenses (present, past and future perfect) 1. Used for actions that are indefinite or last a period of time 2. Subject + Auxiliary have (had/have-has/will have)) + past part. (-ed for reg. v. or 3rd column of irr.v.) 4. Perfect progressive tenses (present, past and future perfect progressive) Have (in the present, past, or future) + been + present participle (–ing form) TENSES ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE SIMPLE S V O PRESENT The researchers observe the The feeding patterns of the carp are feeding patterns of the carp. observed (by the researchers) SIMPLE PAST The researchers observed the The feeding patterns of the carp were feeding patterns of the carp. observed by the researchers. SIMPLE FUTURE The researchers will observe the The feeding patterns of the carp will be feeding patterns of the carp observed by the researchers. PRESENT The researchers are observing the The feeding patterns of the carp are being CONTINUOUS feeding patterns of the carp observed by the researchers. PAST The researchers were observing The feeding patterns of the carp were CONTINUOUS the feeding patterns of the carp being observed by the researchers. FUTURE The researchers will be observing CONTINUOUS the feeding patterns of the carp IMPOSSIBLE PRESENT The researchers have observed the The feeding patterns of the carp have been PERFECT feeding patterns of the carp. observed by the researchers. PAST PERFECT The researchers had observed the The feeding patterns of the carp had been feeding patterns of the carp. observed by the researchers. FUTURE The researchers will have observed The feeding patterns of the carp will have PERFECT the feeding patterns of the carp. been observed by the researchers. 8
UNIT TWO: SENTENCE STRUCTURE SENTENCES AND CLAUSES Sentences are made up of clauses. There are two kinds of sentences: simple and complex sentences. Simple sentences are made up of independent clauses. A complex sentences has both independent clauses and dependent clauses. 1. An independent clause expresses a complete thought as can be a sentence by itself, for example: Fish have gills. 2. A dependent clause begins with a subordinator and cannot be a sentence by itself. There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb, adjective or noun. a. Adverb: …because fish have gills… b. Adjective: …which is in aquaculture… c. Noun: …that aquaculture is growing… These clauses combine together to form sentences. There are four possible kinds of sentences: 1. A simple sentence has one independent clause: Fish have gills. 2. A simple compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a coordinator or coordinate connector (see list below): Fish have gills so they can breathe under water. COORDINATE CONNECTORS and but/yet or nor so S V A O S V O Vietnam is now the third largest rice exporting country in the world yet farmers are still poor. 3. A complex sentence has one independent clause and one (or more) dependent clauses. The dependent clause begins with a subordinator or subordinate coordinators. The punctuation depends on the kind of dependent clause(s): a. With an adverb clause: Because fish have gills, they can breathe under water OR Fish can breathe under water because they have gills. b. With an adjective clause: One of my favorite foods is clams which are shellfish. c. With a noun clause: The children didn’t know that fish have gills. 4. A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and one (or more) dependent clauses: Because fish have gills they can breathe under water but they cannot breathe when they are out of the water. 9
COMPLEX SENTENCES: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that begins with a adverbial subordinator. It is used to modify the verb of the independent clause and tells when (time), where (place), why (reason), and for what purpose, how, how long, or how far. It is also used to show contrast: concession (unexpected result) and direct opposition. S VA O S V Vietnam is the 3rd largest rice exporting country because the green revolution has taken off. S V S VO A Because the green revolution has taken off, Vietnam is the third largest rice exporting country in the world. Note: In the first example, the connector because comes in the middle of the sentence, and no comma (,) is used. In the second example, the connector because comes at the beginning of the sentence. In this pattern when the connector comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma (,) is required in the middle of the sentence. The following chart lists adverb connectors of contrast, condition, manner, and place and the sentence patterns used with them. SUBORDINATOR MEANING Time When A point in time/short duration Whenever At any time While At the same time/longer duration As soon as Immediately at or instantly after the time After Following the time that Since From that time/moment As While/when Before Earlier than the time when Until Up to the time of Place Where A definite place Anywhere, wherever Anyplace Everywhere Everyplace Distance/ As + adverb + as Comparison Frequency Manner As, as if, as though In the way or manner that/like Reason Because As For the reason that Since Result So + adjective + that So + adverb + that Such a(n) +noun phrase + that With the result that So much/many/little/few + noun phrase + that Purpose So that, in order that For the purpose of Concession Although, though Even though Unexpected result Contrast While Whereas Direct opposition 10
COMPLEX SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES A noun clause functions as a noun: OBJECT: The researchers know when the fish will spawn. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION: The researchers are concerned about what is done with fish waste SUBJECT: Conflicts arise with the fishermen who disagree with the removal of early stages. SUBORDINATORS: NOUN CLAUSE CONNNECTORS What, when, where, why, how whatever, whenever whether, if, that In the example above, we saw that noun clause connectors were used to introduce noun subject clauses or noun object clauses. Here below, we will see that in some cases a noun clause connector is not just a connector; a noun clause connector can also be the suject of the clause at the same time. SUBORDINATORS: NOUN CLAUSE CONNNECTOR/SUBJECTS Who what which whoever whatever whichever NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT S V noun conn./subject V I know what happened. NOUN CLAUSE AS SUBJECT Noun conn./subject V V What happened was great. COMPLEX SENTENCES: ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (also called relative clauses) An adjective clause is a clause that describes a noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is positioned directly after the noun that it describes. SUBORDINATORS: ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS Whom Which That (for people) (for things) (for people or things) S V Adjective connector S V S Adjective connector S V V Note: The adjective connectors can be omitted. This omission is very common in spoken English or in casual written English. It is not as common in formal English. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS/SUBJECTS Who Which That (for people) (for things) (for people or things) S V Adjective connector/Subject V S Adjective connector/Subject V V Note: The adjective connectors can be omitted. This omission is very common in spoken English or in casual written English. It is not as common in formal English. 11
UNIT TWO: REDUCED CLAUSES It is possible in English to have complete or reduced adjective and adverb clauses. The following charts list the structure for reduced adjective and adverb clauses and rules for how and when reduced forms can be used. The scientist should finish the study (which is) being conducted at the laboratory C. Although (it was) not certain, the results seemed to confirm the hypothesis. REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES With a be-verb in the adjective (adjective connector/subject) + (be) clause With no be-verb in the adjective (adjective connector/subject) + (be) clause To reduce an adjective clause, omit the adjective clause connector/subject and the be- verb. If there is no be-verb, omit the connector/subject and change the main verb to the –ing form. Only reduce an adjective clause if the connector/subject is directly followed by the verb. If an adjective clause is set off with commas, the reduced clause can be moved to the front of the sentence. REDUCED ADVERB CLAUSES With a be- (Adverb connector)(subject) (be) verb in the The ointment can be applied where (it) (is) needed. clause With no (Adverb connector) (verb + -ing) be-verb in The technician should negotiate before agreeing to work there. the clause TIME CONDITION CONTRAST PLACE MANNER Reduces in After If Although ACTIVE before unless Though since whether while Reduces in Once If Although where As PASSIVE while unless Though wherever when whether whenever To reduce an adverb clause, omit the subject and the be-verb from the adverb clause. If there is no be-verb clause, then omit the subject and change the verb to the –ing form. 12
THREE: UNIT THREE: SIGNAL WORDS Signal words help you, the reader, follow the direction of a writer’s thought. They are like signposts on the road that guide the traveler. Common signal words show emphasis, addition, comparison, or contrast, illustration, and cause and effect. EMPHASIS WORDS Among the most valuable signals for you to know are emphasis words, through which the writer tells you directly that a particular idea or detail is especially important. Think of such words as red flags that the author is using to make sure you pay attention to an idea. Look over the following listl, which contains some typical words showing emphasis Important to note especially valuable the chief factor most of all most noteworthy a vital force a significant factor remember that above all a primary concern a major event a central issue the most substantial issue the chief outcome a distinctive quality a key feature pay particular attention to should be noted the main value the principal item especially relevant Circle the one emphasis in each of these selections. 1. Although the resources of the world are limited, the wants of people are not. Indeed, one of the most importnant assumptions of economics is that total human wants can never be satisfied. No matter how much we have, we seem to want more. As people’s income increase, so does their desire for more and better goods and services. 2. In practice, a deficiency of just one nutrient, such as protein, is not generally seen. More likely, a combination of protein and calorie malnutrition will occur. Protein and calorie deficiency go hand in hand so often that public health officials have given a name to the whole spectrum of diesease conditions that range between the two –protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM). This is the world’s most widespread malnutrition problem, killing millions of children every year. 3. Chronic air pollution is expensive, costing dearly in terms of both money and health. Air pollution causes buildings and machines to deteriorate. Our poisioned air damages crops, livestock, roads. And metals and forces huge cleaning bills for everything from dusty draperies to soot- blackened buildings. It is especially in terms of health, however, that pollution hurts. It is estimated that breathing the air of New York city is the equivalent of smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. 13
ADDITION WORDS Addition words tell you that the writer’s thought is going to continue in the same direction. He or she is going to add on more points or details of the same kind. Addition words are typically used to signal enumerations. Also first of all last of all and another for one thing likewise second finally furthermore moreover the third reason first in addition next Read the selections that follow. Circle five major addition words in the passage. 1. Here are ways to take some of the danger out of smoking. First of all, choose a cigarette with less tar and nicotine. The difference in brands (including those with filters) can be as much as two to one, even more. See how much you can reduce your tar and nicotine by switching. Also, don’t smoke your cigarette all the way down. You get the most tar and nicotine from the last few puffs because the tobacco itself acts as a filter. Smoke halfway and you get only about 40% of the total tar and nicotine. The last half of the cigarette will give you 60%. Another help is to take fewer draws on each cigarette. Just reduce the number of time you puff on each cigarette and you’ll cut down on your smoking without really missing it. In addition, you should reduce your inhaling. Remember, you’re not standing on a mountain of fresh air, so don’t welcome it with open lungs. Don’t inhals as deeply; take short shallow drags. Finally, you should smoke fewer cigarettes each day. For some people this is easy, but for others it may be the most difficult step of all. Don’t think of it as cutting down; think of it as posponing. It’s always easier to postpone a cigarette if you know you’ll be having one later. Carry your cigarette if you know you’ll be having one later. At work, keep your cigarettes in a desk drawer –any place where you can’t reach for one automatically. The trick is to change your habit patterns. What other bad habits do you want to quit and what can you do about it? How about the habits of the aquaculture farmers? 14
COMPARISON OR CONTRAST WORDS Comparison words signal that the author is pointing out a similarity between subjects. They tell you that the second idea is like the first one in come way. Like just as in the same way Similarly likewise in like manner alike equally just like in a similar fashion Compared to X as Contrast words signal a change in the direction of the writer’s thought. They tell you that the author is pointing out a difference between two subjects or statements. But Yet variation on the other hand however differ still conversely in contrast difference on the contrary otherwise instead even so nonetheless nevertheless Circle the one comparision and the one contrast signal in each passage. Then discuss the content and try to incorporate some othe 1. Sleep has always been a fascinating topic. We spend about one-third of our adult life sleeping. Most animals sleep in a similar fashion –they collapse and relax their muscles. In contrast, birds and horses sleep upright, with their antigravity muscles at work. How about aquatic animals? 2. The steadyly increasing flow of women into the labor force is caused by a number of economic factors. And just as these economic factors are occuring, attitudes are changing as well. Many women no longer feel that being a full-time homemaker is providing them with an adequate sense of self-fulfillment and self-worth. Still, many career ladders have remained frustratingly difficult for women to climb. What is the case of the women who surround you? ILLUSTRATION WORDS Illustration words tell you that an example or illustration will be given to make an idea clear. Such words are typically used in textbooks that present a number of definitions and examples of those definitions. for example Specifically for instance to illustrate Once such as 1. Not all problems can be solved with straightwforward strategies but rely more on the use of flexible and original thinking. Psychologists sometimes refer to this type of thinking as divergent thinking in contrast to convergent thinking. A problem such as a math problem requires convergent thinking –it has only one solution or very few solutions. Problems that have no single correct solution and require a flexible, inventive approach call for divergent thinking. Can you think of examples of problems that we face in aquaculture that require either convergent or divergent thinking? 15
CAUSE-AND-EFFECT WORDS Because Reason Since therefore effect as a result so that thus if…then cause consequently result in Circle one instance of a cause-an-effect word or words in the following passages. 1. Thirty years ago, miners accepted cancer of the lung as part of life. They knew that longtime workers got short of breath and caughed up blood, and they wrote folk songs about brown lung disease. But as a result of a new awareness about occupational diseases and a social movement against coal dust, an accepted fact of life was transformed into an unacceptable illness. How about other instances of occupational illnesses are there? Is there anything being done to prevent these illnesses? Is there anything to do about it? Below are some of the signal words that are most often used by writers. Place each word under its proper heading. for example in addition therefore for instance moreover just as most important consequently but most significant also however differ such as alike similarly as a result especially valuable Emphasis Addition _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Comparison Contrast _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Illustration Cause and Effect _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ 16
UNIT THREE: NUMBERS Numbers and the language describing numbers are very important to understand when you read research articles, books or reports or when you discuss with colleagues. The language of numbers and the language describing numbers must be understood clearly, if not, mistakes in misunderstanding can cause serious mistakes. NUMERALS 1. Cardinal Numbers a. 0 zero (especially in mathematics and for temperature), ‘oh’ (in telephone numbers), nil (in sports) b. 100 1,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 a/one hundred, thousand, million, billion c. 101 1,001 etc. a/one hundred and one, a/one thousand and one d. 201 2,001 etc. two hundred and one, two thousand and one 2. Ordinal Numbers a. 1st first; ‘The first of April” (spoken) b. 2nd second; ‘The second species we will look at’ c. 3rd third; ‘Our third experiment was successful’ d. 4th fourth; “he is the fourth specialist we saw” e. 21st twenty-first; ‘These products will take us to the twenty-first century’ f. 100th (one) hundredth; ‘Our one hundredth new customer’ g. 101st (one) hundred and first h. 1,000 th (one) thousandth i. 1,000,000 (one) millionth 3. Fractions and Decimals a. ½ (a) half; ‘over half of our exports go to the USA’ 1/3 b. one-third; ‘One-third of the fry was loss’ 2/3 c. two-thirds; ‘We can usually sell two-thirds of the harvest quickly’ d. ¼ (a) quarter; ‘The earliest starting time is (a) quarter past seven’ e. ¾ three-quarters; ‘It takes me three-quarters of an hour to prepare’ 1/10 f. a/one tenth; g. 1½ one and a half; ‘The whole process takes one and a half hours’ h. 2.5 two point five i. 3.75 three point seven five (not: seventy-five) j. 26.012 twenty-six point zero (or ‘oh’) one two 17
4. Frequency expressions once twice three times … 5. Dimensions and specifications: Below are some expressions in both the written and spoken forms. a. Distance i. 1mm a/one millimetre ii. 10cm ten centimetres iii. 5m five metres iv. 7.5km seven point five kilometres v. 2m × 5m two metres by five metres b. Mass i. 10g 10 grams ii. 1,000kg a/one thousand kilos/kilograms iii. 1mmt 1 million metric ton c. Square Measure i. 100cm2 a/one hundred square centimetres ii. 10,000m2 ten thousand square metres d. Capacity Measure i. 10cl ten centilitres ii. 2l two litres e. Cubic Measure i. 1,000 cm3 a/one thousand cubic centimetres ii. 100m3 a/one thousand cubic metres f. Mathematical symbols i. 2+2 two and/plus two ii. =4 is/equals//is equal to four iii. -2 minus/less two iv. ×6 multiplied by/times six v. ÷ divided by 3 vi. () brackets or parenthesis vii. {} braces viii. [] square brackets ix. angle brackets x. < is less than xi. > is greater than 4 xii. 2 two to the power of 4 xiii. √4 the square root of four xiv. ≈ almost equal to xv. ≡ identical too/is equivalent to xvi. % percent xvii. °F degree Fahrenheit xviii. °C degree Celcius xix. ppt parts per thousand 18
UNIT THREE: DESCRIBING TRENDS 1 Form Trends are changes or movements. These changes are normally in numerical items, e.g. costs, production volumes… . There are three basic trends: going up ↑, going down ↓, remaining stable →. A fourth trend, fluctuating, is when the movement changes all the time. For each trend there are a number of verbs and nouns to express the movement. We can divide the verbs into transitive and intransitive. After a transitive verb we must put an object: We have raised our prices because of inflation. After an intransitive verb we cannot put a direct object. Our prices have risen because of inflation. a. ↑ VERBS NOUNS Transitive Intransitive Increase Increase Increase Raise Rise Rise Put/push/step up Go/be up Grow Growth Extend Extension (time) Expend Expand Expansion (size) Boom Boom (dramatic increase) b. ↓ VERBS NOUNS Transitive Intransitive Decrease Decrease Decrease Fall Fall Drop Drop Drop Put/push down Go/be down Dip Decline Decline Cut Cut Reduction Reduce Collapse (dramatic fall) Collapse Slump (dramatic fall) Slump 19
c. → VERBS NOUNS Transitive Intransitive Keep/hold…stable/constant Remain stable Stability Maintain…(at the same level) Stay constant d. Other expressions In the first year (x) sales in our region stood at 109, 000 units. x x In the sixth year, sales reached a peak of 24,000 units. Trends are changes. Sometimes we need to give more information about the change, as follows1: Degree of change: The cost of shrimps has fallen… dramatically / vastly / hugely / enormously / substantially / considerably / significantly / moderately / slightly / a little. The cost of shrimps has known a dramatic/ huge/ enormous/ substantial/ considerable/ significant/ moderate/ slight fall. The speed of change: There has been a sharp/rapid /quick / swift / gradual / continuous/ steady/ slow increase in our expenses. Our expenses have sharply/ rapidly/ quickly/ swiftly/ gradually/ continuously/ steadily/ slowly increased. Finally, we can also qualify not only the change but also the information about the change, for example: Farmers have had a considerably/fairly/relatively/rather slow year. 1 * Remember that we modify a noun with an adjective (a dramatic rise); and a verb with an adverb (to rise dramatically) 20