Mechanical and cytotoxic analysis of cutlery developed from phenol-formaldehyde modified soy-jute composite

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natural fiber for the construction of hybrid bio-composites. In the current research project, a thorough analysis of the use of soy-PF resin for the creation of composites reinforced with jute was conducted. A novel and practical cutlery material was created after the mechanical properties were evaluated and optimized. In order to study the value addition of these newly proposed biocomposite materials as an ecological alternative in terms of natural resources versus synthetic resources, variables such as hardness, cytotoxicity, and degrading qualities of composites were also explored.

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Nội dung Text: Mechanical and cytotoxic analysis of cutlery developed from phenol-formaldehyde modified soy-jute composite

Received: 22 August 2022 Revised: 7 July 2023 Accepted: 23 August 2023 DOI: 10.1002/vjch.202200162 RESEARCH ARTICLE Mechanical and cytotoxic analysis of cutlery developed from phenol-formaldehyde modified soy-jute composite Ajaya Kumar Behera1 Shruti Swaroop Pattnaik1 Chirasmayee Mohanty1 Rohit Srivastav2 Jyotsnarani Pradhan3 1 Department of Chemistry, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Abstract 2 University of Massachusetts (UMass), Lowell, The need of the hour is for the creation of natural fiber-based, biodegradable Massachusetts, USA cutlery in order to protect our planet from pollution caused by plastic. Soy 3 Department of Biotechnology, Utkal University, resin creates a hard eco-friendly/biodegradable composite when combined with Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India phenol-formaldehyde/resole and a natural fiber like jute. In this experiment, soy and other ingredients are combined with various weight percentages of resoles. Correspondence Jute-modified soy composites are characterized through Fourier transform infra- Ajaya Kumar Behera, Department of Chemistry, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751004, red spectroscopy, mechanical testing and found maximum tensile strength of India. 46.62 MPa. After 8 weeks of microbial degradation testing on the generated Email: ajayabehera@utkaluniversity.ac.in composites, it is discovered that the mechanically optimized composite lost only 17.7% of its initial weight. Cutlery pieces are molded using the jute-soy/jute-resole Funding information Odisha State Higher Education Council, modified soy composition, and cytotoxicity testing has shown that they are non- Bhubaneswar toxic. Because they are non-toxic and biodegradable, these composites can be used as a substitute to non-biodegradable plastic in a range of industries. KEYWORDS cytotoxicity, green composites, jute, phenol-formaldehyde, soy resin 1 INTRODUCTION lignocellulosic fibers used as reinforcing agents for com- posite structures for centuries.3,4 Due to their distinctive The demand for biodegradable materials over synthetic qualities, which include low density, biodegradability, and plastic-based composites has been on the rise in line with other physico-mechanical requirements for producing the the global population expansion. Natural resources are biocomposite materials to be used in automotive, pack- under tremendous strain from this ever-increasing demand, aging, construction, and other commodity applications, and the situation regarding the depletion of petroleum and these fibers establish the fact that they are an environment forest resources is frightening. Recent times have seen the friendly alternative to synthetic fibres.5,6 Researchers have emergence of global environmental concerns, which has noted the necessity of conducting life-cycle assessments pushed the use of lignocellulosic fibers as reinforcement (LCA) and environmental impact assessments (EIA) studies to create sustainable composites.1,2 As a result, one of the on plant fibers and the production of bio-composites from most prominent developments in the scientific community these fibers to evade the economic and environmental is the study of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites apprehensions. The LCA shows that the use of resin, rather and the investigation of the related industrial applications. than reinforcing fiber, has the greatest impact on the The most affordable and sustainable sources of environment, emphasizing the replacement of synthetic biodegradable natural fibers are plants. Cotton, jute, thermoset matrix with green resins made up of natural bamboo, flax, and hemp are a few examples, but there are resources.7,8 Numerous studies have also looked at fatigue, many more. These plants were the main source of abundant moisture retention, and wear qualities and found that these © 2024 Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology and Wiley-VCH GmbH. Vietnam J. Chem. 2024;62:151–159. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/vjch 151
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 152 BEHERA ET AL. characteristics rely on the length and weight fraction of the 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS fibers used.9 Formaldehyde-based thermosetting resins are com- 2.1 Materials monly utilized as an adhesive matrix. Phenol, urea, melamine-formaldehyde resins are an excellent poly- Non-woven jute and fully matured soy seeds were obtained meric matrix with a natural fiber reinforcing for creating from the local town Bhubaneswar, India. NaOH, phenol, commercial biocomposite materials because of their sim- HCHO solution (formalin), glycerol and glyoxal, were pro- ple processing and wide range of uses. When reinforced cured through Merck, India. Other chemicals like sodium with natural fiber, phenol-formaldehyde resin, one of nitrite (NaNO2 ), potassium chloride (KCl), dipotassium the most significant thermoset matrices, demonstrates phosphate (K2 HPO4 ), sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium chlo- qualities including flame retardancy, wear resistance, high ride (CaCl2 ), ammonium nitrate (NH3 NO4 ), ferrous sulphate stiffness, low smoke propagator, strong electrical insu- (FeSO4 ), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2 PO4 ), mag- lation, and superior corrosion resistance.10,11 Due to its nesium sulphate (MgSO4 ), and glucose (0.5%) were bought excellent mechanical characteristics, hydrophobicity, and from Finar, India. other aesthetic qualities, natural fiber reinforced ther- moset phenol-formaldehyde composites are currently in high demand.12 With altering volume percentages of jute 2.2 Formation of resole (PF) resin and rockwool, respectively, Ozturk created several sets of jute/phenolic and jute/rockwool/phenolic composites. Due In about 6.5 g (0.07 mol) of phenol, formalin solution to physical interactions, the composite’s tensile strength (13.34 g (0.165 mol)) was taken into a three necked (TS) increased and peaked at 42 wt%, whereas its flexural round bottom flask and stirred by a magnetic stirrer strength (FS) peaked at 34 wt% of fiber loading.13 In 2005, at 60 ◦ C for 2 h. During stirring, 3 mL (about a few Singh and Gupta created jute/phenolic composites and drops) of NaOH having around 40% concentration was evaluated its mechanical characteristics under a variety of added to it. After the completion of reaction, the solu- environmental factors, including humidity and weathering. tion was neutralized with the help of DI water until The composite’s tensile and flexural strengths were found the pH reached to 7.10 Then the PF resin was kept to be 33 and 62.6 MPa, respectively. Due to the leaching out ready for soy modification and subsequent composite of soluble materials from the composite, intrinsic bonding fabrication. capacity of the composite was decreased by 44% under accelerated water ageing, 30.3% under durability cyclic conditions, and 3% under cyclic exposure.14 Succinic and 2.3 Synthesis of modified resin and phthalic anhydrides treated jute fibers were used with fabrication of composites epoxy matrix to develop composites and among them, latter composite showed better TS of 81.82 MPa and FS Following the procedure described by Behera et al., soymilk of 142.701 MPa, respectively.8 Jute fiber has already been was squeezed out from soy seeds that had been ingrained treated with soy resin, a thermoset that is also biodegrad- in water.15 The extracted milk had an average solid con- able, to create biocomposite. According Behera et al., the tent of 20 wt%. Soymilk of different wt% values (100, TS and FS of the equivalent composite did not signifi- 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, and 0) and PF (resole) (0, 30, 40, cantly increase when natural fiber was reinforced with 50, 60, 70, and 100 wt%) were mixed with cross link- combined matrix of melamine formaldehyde and soy, ing agent (10 wt% of glyoxal), and plasticizer (10 wt% but the hydrophobicity did.15 Due to the low mechanical of glycerol) in a 200 mL beaker and mixed for about strength of soy resin, which can be improved by modifying 15–20 min using magnetic stirrer for the synthesis mod- or combining it with PF resin, no research has been done ified resin. Alkali treated (2 wt% of NaOH, 2 h) unwoven on the use of such a combined soy-PF resin system on any jute fabric of 15 cm × 15 cm dimension was immersed natural fiber for the construction of hybrid bio-composites. in the above resin. These resin-coated fiber pieces were In the current research project, a thorough analysis of the piled (3 pieces for a single composite) and heat-pressed use of soy-PF resin for the creation of composites reinforced via compression molding (Polyhedron Pvt. Ltd., India) at with jute was conducted. A novel and practical cutlery 110 ◦ C for 20 min under 12 kg cm−2 pressure with an air material was created after the mechanical properties were breathing of 2–3 min to fabricate jute-soy-resole compos- evaluated and optimized. In order to study the value addi- ites (JSRC). Developed composites were coded as JSRC1-7 tion of these newly proposed biocomposite materials as an respectively. The variants for JSRC composite fabrication is ecological alternative in terms of natural resources versus given in Table 1. The digital photographs of preparation of synthetic resources, variables such as hardness, cytotoxicity, resole, resole-soy resin and JSRC2 composites are shown in and degrading qualities of composites were also explored. Figure 1.
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License BEHERA ET AL. 153 TA B L E 1 Formulation of jute reinforced soy-resole composites. Soy—Resole resin (40 wt% on dry basis) (wt%) Jute Soy Resin (wt%) Resole Composite wt% SM: Resole SM Glutaraldehyde Glycerol wt% JSRC1 60 100:0 100 10 10 0 JSRC2 60 70:30 70 10 10 30 JSRC3 60 60:40 60 10 10 40 JSRC4 60 50:50 50 10 10 50 JSRC5 60 40:60 40 10 10 60 JSRC6 60 30:70 30 10 10 70 JSRC7 60 0:100 0 10 10 100 FIGURE 1 Digital images of (a) resole preparation, (b) resole-soy resin, and (c) JSRC2 composites. 2.4 Characterization methods 2.4.3 Hardness testing 2.4.1 Evaluation of mechanical properties Hardness of JSRC composites was measured using a Vicker’s hardness instrument (UHL VMHT, Germany). 100 g of load- Properties like tensile strength and flexural strength ing force with a dwelling time of 12 s, at room temperature of the fabricated materials were assessed following (30 ± 2 ◦ C) was set. Five points were dwelled on every ASTM D638 and D790, with a cross head speed of 5 sample surface and results (in mean value) are reported. and 2 mm min−1 , respectively using a HOUNSFIELD H10KS universal testing machine. Six specimens of each composite sample were tested and average values are 2.4.4 Moisture absorption testing reported. Moisture content of JSRC composite was measured follow- ing ASTM D5229-05. Samples were placed in two different 2.4.2 Fourier-transform infrared (75% and 90%) maintained RH chambers at 27 ± 3 ◦ C. An spectroscopy analysis aqueous saturated solution of sodium chloride and potas- sium chloride was used to maintain relative humidities The FTIR spectral data for jute, soy resin, soy-PF resin, JSRC1, of 75% and 90%, respectively. Equation (1) was used to and JSRC4 samples, were obtained through Thermo Nico- compute moisture absorption. let, Nexus 870 IR spectrometer, in a wave number range of ( ) 4000–400 cm−1 , keeping 30 scans for each sample. Spec- Wf − W i Absorption (%) = × 100 (1) imen samples were made into KBr pellets keeping the Wi sample to KBr ratio as 1:100. Jute, resin, composite samples were well powdered, and vacuum dried at 80 ± 1 ◦ C for 1.5 h where ‘Wf ’ and ‘Wi ’ refer to the after and before experiment prior to pellet making. weight of the specimen.
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 154 BEHERA ET AL. 2.4.5 Microbial degradation testing The decomposition of composites was studied using Penicillium waksmanii, a fungus that produces cellulase enzyme. The fungal stock cultures were kept in Czapek Dox Broth, which contained a mineral salt solution of ammonium nitrate (0.3%), potassium hydrogen phos- phate (0.22%), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.014%), sodium chloride (0.001%), magnesium sulfate (0.06%), cal- cium chloride (0.004%), iron sulfate (0.002%), and glucose (0.5 %). A spore suspension of fungus (1:10 w/v) was mixed with pre-weighed JSRC (Wi ) samples (90 mm × 15 mm) and cultured for 2 months at 30 ◦ C in an incubator chamber with humidity control sustaining 80% RH. The fungal inoculation was mixed with the broth solution to form spore suspen- FIGURE 2 Mechanical properties of jute-soy-resole composites. sion. The Czapek dox medium should have less glucose for fungal development during its earliest stages.16 Every 7 days, a glucose-free Czapek dox broth (10 mL) was added using the MTT test, the vitality of the cells was evaluated. to ensure appropriate fungal growth. Samples were disin- Cells treated with medium served as the experiment’s con- fected by using 70% ethyl alcohol and dried in the oven for trol. Before an incubation of four hours, the treatment was 45 ◦ C for 24 h after varied time intervals (7, 14, 28, 42, and 56 replaced with fresh media and an addition of 10 μL of MTT days, respectively). Samples were weighed thereafter (Wf ), (5 mg mL−1 , Sigma, St Louis, MO) was done. The dissolved and the weight depreciation percentage of the samples was DMSO formazan crystals were assessed at 570 nm using a calculated by using Equation (2). microplate reader (BioTek Instruments Inc., USA.17 Equation ( ) (3) is used to determine the percentage of viable cells. Wi − W f Weight loss (%) = × 100 (2) Wi Cellviability (%) [ ] = Absorbance of sample∕Absorbance of control 2.4.6 Field emission scanning electron ×100 (3) microscopy analysis A thin gold layer was applied to about 1–2 mg of JSRC1 and JSRC4 composites using a plasma sputtering device after they were oven dried for 24 h at 80 ± 5 ◦ C. A 5–10 kV elec- 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION trical field is used to accelerate and steer a high-vacuum electron beam produced by a scanning electron micro- 3.1 Mechanical properties of composites scope’ tungsten filament electron gun cathode to land on the exterior of the sample. The sample’s secondary elec- From Figure 2, we assess that as the resole proportion trons are forced to travel through a detector, resulting in a ascends from 0% to 50% by weight, tensile strength digitized representation of the sample’s surface. increases from 34.68 to 46.62 MPa. The further addition of resole would result in a decrease in tensile strength above 50 wt%. At a lower concentration of resole (0–30 wt%), the fibers are not properly bound by enough matrixes and high 2.4.7 Cytotoxicity analysis strain occurs in the matrix at low stress causing the debond- ing between matrix and fiber.15 The composite strength The National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune sold the increased to 46.62 MPa (JSRC4) as the resole concentration human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cell line, which was increased (from 30 to 50 wt%), resulting in more evenly developed using DMEM with 10% FBS, 1% L-glutamine, and distributed stress. Resole, soy protein, and jute cellulose 1% penicillin streptomycin at 37 ◦ C in a humidified, 5% CO2 interacted more strongly, as evident from the tensile and incubator (Eppendorf, Galaxy 170R). In a nutshell, HEK cells flexural properties.18 were plated in 96-well plates from Nest (India) at a concen- Tensile modulus of JSRC composite was also enhanced tration of 5000 cells per well and allowed to adhere for 1 from 889 to 1116 MPa with resole content from 0 to whole day at 37 ◦ C in growth media. The following day, HEK 50 wt%. It can be observed that the flexural strength cells were treated with various concentrations of general curve of JSRC composites exhibits slope response as jute-soy composite (JSRC1) and JSRC4 composite (0.5, 1, 2, shown in Figure 2. The JSRC composites’ flexural features 4, 6, 8, and 16 μg mL−1 ), incubated for 24 and 72 h, and exhibit the similar pattern as their tensile properties. The
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License BEHERA ET AL. 155 FIGURE 4 Vicker’s hardness properties of jute-soy-resole composites. FIGURE 3 FTIR spectra of jute-soy-resole composites. the deformation vibration of the aromatic ring’s CH bonds, a peak at 1080 cm−1 was obtained for each specimen.18 flexural strength property along with modulus of compos- ites enriched from 35.93 to 56.8 MPa and 1304–5631 MPa for 0–50 wt% of resole content. The further incorporation 3.3 Hardness property of composites of resole decreases both flexural strength and the modu- lus. The greatest elongation at break value was found to be To assess the ability of JSRC composite to withstand scratch 8.09% for 50 weight percent resole loading (JSRC4), indicat- or any indention on its surface, hardness testing was done ing that the produced composite is more ductile than other and results are depicted in Figure 4. JSRC composites.4 With the increase in resole content from 0% to 30%, the hardness number of corresponding was enhanced from 11.4 to 14.2. For JSRC composite containing 50, 60, and 3.2 Fourier-transform infrared 70 wt% of resole, hardness numbers were found to be in spectroscopy analysis close conjunction with each other. Generally, the hardness property of composite depends on the nature of fiber used FTIR analysis was carried out to evaluate the chemical bond- in composite fabrication.19 As hardness serves as the rela- ing of jute with soy and jute with soy-resole resin which is tion between fiber volume and modulus, here jute content shown in Figure 3. When looking at jute samples, the dis- in each composite is same (i.e., 60 wt%). Hence the increase tinctive broad peak around 3400 cm−1 indicates that the in hardness number of JSRC composite might be due cellulose in unaltered jute fiber has ─OH groups in stretch- to strong interaction between soy-resole-jute. Hardness ing mode. For soy and soy-resole resin the ─OH stretching number dramatically dropped as resole content increased band occurred at 3416 and 3420 cm−1 respectively. JSRC1 beyond 50 wt%. For the JSRC4 composite, the maximum and JSRC4 samples displayed a shift in stretching fre- surface hardness value of 16.6 is attained, which is 45.6% quency towards higher wavelength values, namely, 3433 greater than the jute-soy (JSRC1) composite’s benchmark and 3445 cm−1 , respectively.15 value. Another characteristic peak at around 1745 cm−1 of C═O stretch in the ester of the jute, and soy was enhanced in JSRC1 and shifted to 1739 cm−1 . The shifting and change in 3.4 Moisture absorption of composites peak intensity indicate the formation of bonding between jute and soy matrix. All of the samples produced distinc- All the JSRC composites samples responded to the mois- tive peaks at roughly 2915 and 2860 cm−1 , which are ture, when they are exposed to both 75% RH and 90% related to CH2 stretching in ─CH3 and >CH2 groups in cel- RH. The moisture percentage at two different conditions is lulose and hemicellulose. The peaks appearing at around shown in Figure 5. 2350 cm−1 for soy-resole resin and JSRC4 composite might The absorption of moisture by JSRC1 is highest com- be due to the presence of carbon dioxide.3 Another char- pared to other specimens as it absorbed 7.2% at 75%RH acteristic band obtained at around 1600 cm−1 was due to and 7.8% at 90% RH respectively. As jute, and soy both carbon–carbon double bond (C═C) vibration in the aro- are hydrophilic in nature containing ─OH, ─COOH, ─NH2 matic structure in soy-resole and JSRC4 composite. Due to functional groups in its molecule, hence high moisture
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 156 BEHERA ET AL. 3.5 Microbial degradation analysis Weight loss of JSRC composites after each period of fun- gal degradation is reported in Table 2. Moisture presence in the material is a vital factor for fungal degradation, which reflected on the results of JSRC1 composite. As JSRC1 is made up of jute and soy resin, and its moisture acceptance capacity is highest among other JSRC composites, it lost maximum 4.9% of its initial mass after 7 days as compared to 1.4% of JSRC7. JSRC1 composite surface was totally covered with fun- gus after 56 days of degradation as compared to other JSRC composites because soy protein, cellulose, and hemi- cellulose are more easily susceptible to fungal attack than hard thermoset phenolic resin.21 Digital photographs of fungus covered specimens of JSRC1 and JSRC4 are shown in Figures 7a and 7b, respectively. Spores of Penicillium FIGURE 5 Moisture absorption of jute-soy-resole composites at 75% waksmanii can be observed in the digital photographs and 90% RH. of JSRC1 and JSRC4 composites (marked by arrow). After 56 days (8 weeks) of degradation, JSRC1, JSRC4, and JSRC7 lost 24.2, 17.7 and 16.4% of their initial weight respectively. That indicates that JSRC1 is more degradable as compared to other composites. 3.6 Field emission scanning electron microscopy analysis of sample surface FE-SEM micrographs of JSRC1 and JSRC4 composites prior and post fungal degradation (for a period of 56 days) are shown in Figure 7c–f. Both JSRC1 and JSRC4 composite sur- faces were found completely covered by soy (Figure 7c) and soy-resole resin (Figure 7d) respectively making it smooth. In Figure 7d, jute surface is bonded with matrix perfectly without any fiber pull out and cracking. After 56 days under fungal degradation, surfaces of JSRC1 (Figure 7e) F I G U R E 6 Loss in tensile strength of jute-soy-resole composites after and JSRC4 (Figure 7f) were turned in to rough, irregularity moisture absorption. in matrix coating, and cracking on jute fiber. The pres- ence of spore developed by fungi was also observed on both composite surfaces. Jute fiber in JSRC1 composite was absorption obtained in their corresponding composite.6 found broken, whereas in JSRC4 it was intact, which sug- With increase in resole content, the moisture absorption gest microbial preferred to breakdown cellulose linkage in of JSRC composites decreased and JSRC7 absorbed only former composite than latter.8 Both weight loss and micro- 3.7% and 4.1% at 75% and 90% RH, respectively. How- graphs of degraded surfaces that developed jute-soy-resole ever, moisture absorption of other JSRC composites was composites are degradable in nature.15 observed in between 3.7% to 4.5% and 4.1% to 5.0% at 75% and 90% RH, respectively. The drastic change in mois- ture absorption percentage may be due to crosslinking 3.7 Articles molded from jute-soy-resole structure of resole, which restricts the water penetration on composite composite surface.19,20 Figure 6 shows the tensile strength of JSRC1, JSRC4, and JSRC7 composite before and after In Figure 8, digital images of several molded objects, moisture absorption. The tensile strength values of JSRC4 including cutlery pots and JSRC composite, are displayed. and JSRC7 composite did not change much after moisture Jute-resole modified soy (JSRC4) (Figure 8b) and jute-soy absorption. Both the composites showed no deformation (JSRC1) cutlery were made using a hydraulic press and a in dimension after exposure to high humidity (90% RH). special mold created for cutlery item (Figure 8a). Hence, the developed composites are sustainable in humid The resole modified soy matrix reinforced jute felt (using atmosphere. JSRC4 composition) and soy matrix reinforced jute (using
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License BEHERA ET AL. 157 TA B L E 2 Weight loss of composites after microbial degradation. Samples Weight loss (%) Biodegradation time (days) 7 14 28 42 56 JSRC1 4.9 ± 0.4 9.7 ± 0.4 16.4 ± 0.5 21.6 ± 0.5 24.2 ± 0.7 JSRC2 2.4 ± 0.2 5.9 ± 0.4 13.9 ± 0.5 16.6 ± 0.4 18.2 ± 0.5 JSRC3 2.2 ± 0.2 5.1 ± 0.4 13.6 ± 0.4 16.4 ± 0.5 17.9 ± 0.6 JSRC4 2.0 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.3 13.4 ± 0.3 16.2 ± 0.5 17.7 ± 0.6 JSRC5 1.9 ± 0.2 4.3 ± 0.4 12.9 ± 0.4 15.6 ± 0.4 17.6 ± 0.7 JSRC6 1.8 ± 0.2 4.1 ± 0.3 12.8 ± 0.4 15.3 ± 0.5 17.3 ± 0.5 JSRC7 1.4 ± 0.2 3.2 ± 0.4 12.1 ± 0.4 14.6 ± 0.5 16.4 ± 0.6 F I G U R E 7 Digital photographs of microbial cultured (a) JSRC1, and (b) JSRC4, FE-SEM micrographs of (c) JSRC1, (d) JSRC4, and after degradation of (e) JSRC1, and (f ) JSRC4. JSRC1 composition) were compressed at 120 ◦ C under 10 kg centrated solution (16 μg mL−1 ), cell viability declined to cm−2 pressure for 10 min to develop JSRC4 and JSRC1 cut- 98% after 72 h. Given that both composites exhibit approx- lery items respectively. This product is aesthetically pleas- imately 100% cell viability after 24 h of culture, it may be ing and can be laminated with butter paper (Figure 8c). assumed that neither is hazardous.17,22 Photographs of jute reinforced composite (JSRC4 compos- ite panel) and solar mica coated that composite, can be employed as office cuboids and indoor items, are depicted 4 CONCLUSION in Figures 8d and 8e, respectively. The performance of jute reinforced resole composites was examined in relation to the effects of various weight 3.8 Cytotoxicity analysis of cutlery items percentages of resole, and it was discovered that JSRC4 composite (50 wt% resole content) had the highest ten- Cytotoxic analysis for both JSRC1 and JSRC4 cutlery items sile and flexural strengths, measuring 46.62 and 56.8 MPa, were carried out and result is shown in Figure 9. Both com- respectively. At 90% relative humidity, produced compos- posites exhibit approximately 100% cell viability for varying ites absorbed moisture at a rate of between 4.1% and concentrations after 24 h of cell culture. For a highly con- 5%. The microbial breakdown of a mechanically optimized
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License BEHERA ET AL. Digital photographs of (a) mold, (b) JSRC cutlery, (d) paper laminated cutlery, (e) JSRC panel, and (f ) sun mica coated JSRC. Cytotoxic analysis of JSRC1 and JSRC4 cutlery items. FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9 158
25728288, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/vjch.202200162 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [01/05/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License BEHERA ET AL. 159 composite showed that it is biodegradable but only lost 8. R. Vimal, K. H. Subramanian, C. Aswin, V. Logeswaran, M. Ramesh. 17.7% of its initial weight after 56 days. The cytotoxic Comparisonal study of succinylation and phthalicylation of jute fibres: Study of mechanical properties of modified fibre reinforced epoxy study reveals that composites are not hazardous. The pri- composites, Mater. Today: Proc. 2015, 2, 2918. mary components of the developed materials, jute and 9. M. Ramesh, K. Palanikumar, K. H. Reddy. Plant fibre based bio- soy seeds, are natural bioresources. 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Compos. 2021, 42, 6239. screws, and precisely cut. 12. Y. Zhang, J. Zheng, H. Guo, Y. Li, M. Lu. Urea formaldehyde resin with low formaldehyde content modified by phenol formaldehyde inter- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS mediates and properties of its bamboo particleboards, J. Appl. Polym. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support Sci. 2015, 132, 42280. provided by Odisha State Higher Education Council, 13. B. Ozturk. Hybrid effect in the mechanical properties of jute/rockwool hybrid fibres reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites, Fibers Bhubaneswar, as OURIIP Seed fund project (No. 360/69/ Polym. 2010, 11, 464. OSHEC dated 25/06/2021) for some part of this work. 14. B. Singh, M. Gupta. Performance of pultruded jute fibre reinforced phenolic composites as building materials for door frame, J. Polym. C O N F L I C T O F I N T E R E S T S TAT E M E N T Environ. 2005, 13, 127. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. 15. A. K. Behera, S. Manna. 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