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Báo cáo nông nghiệp:" Dịch tễ học của Neospora caninum"

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Neospora caninum là một ký sinh trùng hình cầu sống ký sinh bắt buộc trong tế bào, có thể gây bệnh ở rất nhiều loài động vật. Trong vòng đời của mình, N. caninum cần một vật chủ trung gian và một vật chủ cuối cùng. Loài ký sinh trùng này tồn tại ở ba dạng và lưu truyền giữa các động vật thông qua hai con đường: lây truyền dọc từ mẹ sang con và lây truyền chéo giữa các cá thể.

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  1. J. Sci. Dev. 20011, 9 (Eng.Iss.1): 28 - 40 HANOI UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE Epidemiology of Neospora caninum infection in animals Dịch tễ học của Neospora caninum Nguyen Hoai Nam1, Suneerat Aiumlamai2, Aran Chanlun2, Kwankate Kanistanon2 1 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hanoi University of Agriculture, Vietnam 2 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Thailand Coressponding author email: hoainam26061982@yahoo.com Received date: 17.03.2011 Accepted date: 28.04.2011 TÓM TẮT Neospora caninum là một ký sinh trùng hình cầu sống ký sinh bắt buộc trong tế bào, có thể gây bệnh ở rất nhiều loài động vật. Trong vòng đời của mình, N. caninum cần một vật chủ trung gian và một vật chủ cuối cùng. Loài ký sinh trùng này tồn tại ở ba dạng và lưu truyền giữa các động vật thông qua hai con đường: lây truyền dọc từ mẹ sang con và lây truyền chéo giữa các cá thể. Tỷ lệ nhiễm N. caninum khác nhau ở các loài động vật và khu vực sinh sống. Ở động vật trưởng thành, bệnh do N. caninum gây ra có thể làm sẩy thai chủ yếu vào giữa thai kỳ và đó cũng là triệu chứng duy nhất được biết cho đến nay. Tỷ lệ sẩy thai ở bò có thể lên đến 44%. Những con non sinh ra từ mẹ bị nhiễm bệnh có thể không bị bệnh, hoặc bị bệnh nhưng không có triệu chứng hoặc thể hiện một số triệu chứng về thần kinh và gặp khó khăn khi vận động. Từ khóa: Dịch tễ học, Neospora caninum. SUMMARY Neospora caninum is an obligate intracellular coccidian parasite, which can infect various animal species. The parasite has a two-host life cycle and exists in three stages. N. caninum can survive and disseminate among animals through horizontal and vertical transmissions. Prevalence of N. caninum infection in animals is different from species to species, from location to location. In adult animals, neosporosis causes abortion, which mostly occurs at mid-gestation and is the only known symptom so far. Pregnancy loss in positive cattle can be up to 44%. Offspring born to infected mothers may be free of disease, subclinically infected or clinically infected. Most clinical symptoms are related to neurological signs and difficulty in locomotion. Key words: Epidemiology, Neospora caninum. 1. INTRODUCTION 2 . BIOLOGY AND LIFE CYCLE OF N. CANINUM Neospora caninum is a parasite belonging to family Sarcocystidae in phylum Apicomplexa. N. caninum has three stages of its life cycle This parasite was first detected in Norwegian dogs which are tachyzoites, tissue cyst containing in 1984 and described in 1988 (Bjerkas et al., bradyzoites, and oocysts. Tachyzoites are lunate, 1984; Dubey et al., 1988). The parasite can infect ovoid or globular with size of 3-7 x 1-5µm depending on the stage of division. Dividing a variety of animals and is now recognized as one tachyzoites are 4 x 3 µm (Speer and Dubey, 1989). of the most important causes of bovine abortion They are located within the parasitophorous worldwide. Considerable economic loss due to vacuole or freely in the host cell cytoplasm (Dubey neosporosis has been demonstrated (Hasler et al., et al., 2002; Speer and Dubey, 1989). 2006), however, highly efficacious prevention and control has not been established. This review Round or oval tissue cysts are primarily found focuses on epidemiology of neosporosis in in the neural tissues characterized by a thick-wall animals. up to 4µm, and the diameter up to 107µm (Dubey 28
  2. Epidemiology of Neospora caninum infection in animals et al., 1988; McGuire et al., 1997). Thin-walled found in the human tissues. However, the question (0.3-1µm) tissue cysts were reported in muscles of that whether human behaves as a host of parasite is cattle and dogs naturally infected with N. caninum- still unanswered. Presence of antibodies to N. like parasite (Peters et al., 2001a). Each neural caninum in many other species suggests that this tissue contains 50-200 bradyzoites measured from parasite may have a wider range of intermediate 7.3 x 1.5 to 8 x 2 µm with 6-12 rhoptries (Dubey et hosts rather than known ones (Dubey et al., 2007a). al., 2002; Speer and Dubey, 1989). Both tachyzoites and tissue cysts are found in several 3. TRANSMISSION organs including brain, heart, kidney, liver, muscle, placenta, etc. (Dubey et al., 2006). Transmission of N. caninum between hosts is Unsporulated oocysts whose walls are classified as postnatal or horizontal transmission colorless are reproduced from the sexual activity of and transplacental or vertical transmission. the parasite and excreted with feces by the Horizontal transmission occurs when animals definitive hosts. Measurements of oocyts are 10.6- ingest tissue cysts, tachyzoites and oocysts while 12.4 x 10.6 x 12 µm with the length-width ratio of vertical transmission is induced when the parasites 1.04 (Lindsay et al., 1999). One oocyst from the dams transmit to their offspring through encompasses two sporocysts which are 8.4 x 6.1 placentas. µm consisting of four sporozoites measured about Vertical transmission in dog is not effective. 6.5 x 2µm in each. After being shed, oocysts Only 4 out of 118 pups born to 17 positive bitches sporulate within 3 days and become infective to its are positive (Barber and Trees, 1998). Low rate of hosts (McAllister et al., 1998b). vertical transmission suggests that there should be N. caninum has a two-host life cycle in which an effective horizontal transmission of neosporosis both sexual and un-sexual replication of the in dogs. However, feeding dogs with infected fetus does not always successfully induce the infection of parasite take place in final hosts and un-sexual N. caninum (Cedillo et al., 2008). In other studies, reproduction occurs in intermediate hosts (Dubey et feeding dogs with infected buffalo brains, mouse al., 2002). As current findings, the parasite has brains and calf tissues could successfully three proven definitive hosts, i.e. dogs, coyotes and predisposed the excretion of oocysts (Gondim et Australian dingoes (Gondim et al., 2004b; King et al., 2002; Lindsay et al., 2001; Rodrigues et al., al., 2010; McAllister et al., 1998a). 2004). Higher amount of oocysts is shed by pups The most important intermediate host of N. and dogs fed with infected calf tissues than adult caninum seems to be cattle since it causes a dogs and dogs fed with infected murine tissues, substantial economic loss in cattle farming. respectively. That dogs defecating oocysts is of Isolations of N. caninum from aborted fetuses, apparentness but whether ingesting of oocysts can calves and cows have been reported (Canada et al., induce neosporosis in dog is still questionable. 2004; Okeoma et al., 2004; Rojo-Montejo et al., Vertical transmission in cattle seems to be much 2009). Buffaloes were also a vulnerable more effective than that reported in dogs. Studies intermediate host of the parasite since N. caninum have shown that the frequency of transplacental was demonstrated from six infected buffaloes by transmission is very high in cattle from 58% to using bioassay and cell culture (Rodrigues et al., 95.2% (Chanlun et al., 2007; Davison et al., 1999). 2004). Furthermore, sheep, white tailed dear, red Horizontal transmission in cattle is usually less foxes, chicken and pigeons are also illustrated their than 5% per year (Chanlun et al., 2007; Davison et role as the intermediate hosts of N. caninum al., 1999; Hietala and Thurmond, 1999). However, (Almeria et al., 2002; Costa et al., 2008; Pena et al., in some cases, this rate can be up to 47% within 6 2007; Rojo-Montejo et al., 2009; Vianna et al., months (Dijkstra et al., 2002; More et al., 2009). 2005). Rhesus monkeys have been successfully Venereal transmission is an aroused concern experimentally infected with N. caninum and since DNA of N. caninum is found in the semen of induced transplacental transmission and fetal naturally infected bulls (Ferre et al., 2005). infection (Barr et al., 1994). This discovery shows However, the presence of parasite is low, i.e. 1-10 possibility of being zoonotic potential of the parasite/ml and intermittent, and live tachyzoites in parasite. In addition, antibodies to N. caninum in the semen have not been specified (Ferre et al., human have been demonstrated (Lobato et al., 2005). Moreover, in a study of intrauterine N. 2006). Fortunately, no DNA or parasite have been 29
  3. Nguyen Hoai Nam, Suneerat Aiumlamai, Aran Chanlun, Kwankate Kanistanon caninum inoculation of heifers and cows using prevalence of less than 30% (Dubey et al., 2007a). contaminated semen, the minimum number of Dairy cattle seem to have higher prevalence of N. tachyzoites used to induce neosporosis was 50,000 caninum comparing with beef cattle (Dubey et al., (Serrano-Martinez et al., 2007). Recently, 2007a). Almost all studies state an individual experimentally infected bulls have failed to induce seropositive status of less than 30% in beef cattle seroconversion in dams through natural breeding except one which found 79% aborted beef positive (Osoro et al., 2009). Presence of DNA of N. in America (McAllister et al., 2000). Herd level caninum is also demonstrated in colostrum prevalence was also reported variably between threatening the possibility of lactogenic 16% and 94% (Bartels et al., 2006; Woodbine et transmission of the disease. However, live al., 2008). tachyzoites have not been demonstrated from milk In the buffaloes, the prevalence of N. caninum (Moskwa et al., 2007). ranges from 0% up to 70.9% (Gennari et al., 2005; Transmission of N. caninum has also been Yu et al., 2007). Interestingly, the prevalence in reported in several other animals. Vertical river buffaloes (34.6% to 70.9%) seems to be transmission is indicated in sheep and goat since higher than that in swamp buffaloes (0%-3.5%). In DNA of N. caninum is found in aborted fetuses sheep and goat the proportions of seropositive (Eleni et al., 2004; O'Handley et al., 2003). Mice experimented subjects have been found up to and cats are also suffered from neosporosis which 26.3% (Konnai et al., 2008). Prevalence of N. results in vertical transmission (Dubey and caninum has been also studied in a wide range of Lindsay, 1989; Haldorson et al., 2005; Miller et al., wild carnivorous, herbivorous, zoo and marine 2005). In a research in buffaloes in Brazil, the animals (Dubey et al., 2007a). vertical transmission rate was demonstrated as The possible zoonotic aspect of N. caninum high as 74% (Rodrigues et al., 2005). Moreover, has been a concern due to the demonstration of two rhesus monkeys are experimentally infected by antibodies against this parasite in human. N. N. caninum tachyzoites and predisposed caninum seropositive people were reported in transplacental transmission (Barr et al., 1994). Brazil (Lobato et al., 2006). In that study, 38% and 18% people who had acquired immuno-deficiency 4. PREVALENCE syndrome and neurological disorders were respectively positive to N. caninum. Testing 1,029, N. caninum infection has been reported in 247 and 172 blood donors in the United States, several countries over the world. A considerably Northern Ireland and Korea, results showed that large number of kinds of animals from 6.7%, 5.3% and 6.7% samples were positive, domesticated to zoo and wild, carnivorous as well respectively (Graham et al., 1999; Nam et al., 1998; as herbivorous animals have been investigated. Tranas et al., 1999). Dogs are an interesting subject of neosporosis studies because of its role as the definitive host of 5. CLINICAL SIGNS the parasite. The seroprevalence of N. caninum in dogs was different from continent to continent and Neosporosis have been reported in dogs at from country to country. In Europe, it was reported different ages with the most found clinical signs of that up to 46.4% tested dogs are seropositive to the locomotor ataxia, paresis or paralysis of either parasite (Ferroglio et al., 2007; Lasri et al., 2004; hindlimbs or forelimbs, or both (Basso et al., 2005; Wouda et al., 1999b). The proportion of positive Crookshanks et al., 2007; Dubey et al., 2007b). The dogs in Asia was also demonstrated from 1.2 % in hindlimbs are usually more severely affected than Thailand to 46% in Iran (Kyaw et al., 2004; the forelimbs (Dubey et al., 2007b). Other Malmasi et al., 2007). In South America, dysfunctions may include rigidity of the legs prevalence also varies from 0% to 58.9% (Reichel et al., 1998), muscle atrophy, stiff jaws (Figueredo et al., 2008). and dysphagia (Basso et al., 2005), rigid hyperextension (Barber and Trees, 1996) and Among all of animals, cattle are most studied Horner’s syndrome (Mayhew et al., 2002). subject in neosporosis. The individual prevalence Multifocal nodular dermatitis, ulcerative and of N. caninum in cattle varies widely ranging from pyogranulomatous dermatitis were also found in as low as 0% to as high as 87 % (Akca et al., 2005; dogs infected with N. caninum (Boyd et al., 2005; Stenlund et al., 2003). Reports frequently show a 30
  4. Epidemiology of Neospora caninum infection in animals La Perle et al., 2001; Perl et al., 1998). How dogs al., 2000; Jensen et al., 1998; McAllister et al., develop neuromuscular symptoms is not clear but it 1996). In addition, meningoencephalomyelitis and is most likely that they are affected by the damage myeloencephalitis were found in deer and horses, in the central nerve system such as cerebella respectively (Marsh et al., 1996; Soldati et al., atrophy, multifocal non-suppurative encephalitis 2004). Moreover, rhinoceros and antelopes are (Dubey, 2005; Lorenzo et al., 2002), multifocal infected with N. caninum with symptoms such as non-suppurative meningoencephalomyelitis myocarditis and stillbirth, respectively (Peters et (Patitucci et al., 1997), myeloencephalitis al., 2001b; Williams et al., 2002). Recently, (Pumarola et al., 1996) and myositis (Crookshanks experiments to infect chicken and embryonated et al., 2007). eggs with N. caninum have induced arthritis in feet joints of chicken and death of embryonated eggs In the adult cattle infected with N. caninum, (Furuta et al., 2007; Mansourian et al., 2009). abortion is the only demonstrated clinical sign. Infection of N. caninum at the early stage of gestation may result in fetal death, resorption or 6 . PATHOGENESIS OF ABORTION IN mummification (Ghanem et al., 2009; Williams et ANIMALS al., 2000) while exposure to the parasite at later stage may result in either calving with congenital In cattle, abortion is defined as the termination infected calves or abortion (McCann et al., 2007; of pregnancy between day 42nd and 260th of Rosbottom et al., 2008). Abortion due to gestation (Lopez-Gatius et al., 2004b). It is still neosporosis was documented to occur through the unclear how the parasite causes abortions but there period of gestation but the majority is between 5th are several possible explanations for this and 7th month of pregnancy (Huang et al., 2004; phenomenon including direct effects of fetal tissue Wouda et al., 1997). N. caninum-positive cattle damage affected by the multiplication of the have from 12.2 to 23.6 times higher risks of being parasite, and the response of maternal and fetal aborted than their neosporosis negative immunities to the parasite which results in death of counterparts (Lopez-Gatius et al., 2004a; Weston placental tissue and subsequent insufficiency of et al., 2005). In several herds, up to 44% oxygen and/or nutrition (Dubey et al., 2006). pregnancies of positive animals could be aborted Cattle embryos within 7 days of gestation do (Lopez-Gatius et al., 2004a). not expose to parasite in positive dams (Moskwa et Although most of calves born to positive dams al., 2008). From day 34th to 90th of pregnancy, are congenitally infected, majority of them are there is no association between abortion and clinically healthy and some express abnormal seropositivity to N. caninum (Lopez-Gatius et al., clinical signs (Pare et al., 1996). Infected calves 2004b). However, there is evidence that may be born underweight, unable to rise and with neosporosis increases the number of services per the neurological signs. Either hindlimbs and/or conception in cattle (Hall et al., 2005). In later forelimbs could be flexed or hyperextended. period of gestation, infection of N. caninum might Neurological examination reveals ataxia, decreased result in fetal death or congenitally infected patellar reflexes and loss of conscious progenies. Time of infection seems crucial to proprioception (Barr et al., 1993; Parish et al., outcome of disease when challenging pregnant 1987). Clinical signs in infected calves may be due cows with N. caninum tachyzoites at day 70th of to the pathological damage including lesions in gestation results in fetal death while infection at brain characterized with non-supportive necrosis day 210th confers transplacentally infected calves foci, focal necrotizing encephalitis, non suppurative (Rosbottom et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2000). In encephalomyelitis, non suppurative myositis, cows infected at day 70th, widespread necrosis and myocarditis (De Meerschman et al., 2002; Pescador inflammation in placentas are found while those et al., 2007; Razmi et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2007). pathological symptoms are absent in the group of Abortion caused by N. caninum was also cows infected at day 210th (Rosbottom et al., found in buffaloes, sheep, goats and pigs with a 2008). Before about day 100th of gestation, fetus variety of systematic disorders in fetuses including could not recognize and respond to pathogens myocarditis, myositis, pneumonitis, nephritis, (Osburn et al., 1982) then the parasite could easily hepatitis and encephalitis (Buxton et al., 1998; invade and multiplicate. The parasite may reinvade Buxton et al., 2001; Dubey et al., 1996; Guarino et placentas from fetuses and causes more severe 31
  5. Nguyen Hoai Nam, Suneerat Aiumlamai, Aran Chanlun, Kwankate Kanistanon necrosis in placentas (Gibney et al., 2008). As the otherwise healthy calves (McCann et al., 2007; result, fetuses might be dead due directly to the Rosbottom et al., 2008). Immuno-competence is destruction of the parasite or the cytotoxic effects very important to survival of fetus. In an of the necrosis process that damages the trophoblast experiment, inoculating tachyzoites to 2 groups of cells. Furthermore, there is a speculation that the pregnant cows at 10th and 30th weeks of infection of bovine neosporosis in the first trimester pregnancy, an increase in response of Th1 to may induce the T helper cell-1 cytokines response presence of parasites was observed in both groups and lead to the generation of IL-12, IFN-γ and (Williams et al., 2000). Despite this fact, fetal death TNF-α and subsequent production of free oxygen occurred only in the former group, in the latter radicals such as nitric oxide, all of which may be group calves were born congenitally infected. lethal to parasite but may also kill fetuses (Quinn et There is a suggestion that the response of Th1 al., 2002). That is why the infection of N. caninum might be too late to affect an existing, well- in the first trimester usually results in severe established Th2 response at maternal-fetal pathogenesis in the placenta and death of fetus. interface. T helper 1 cytokines facilitate pro- inflammatory cytokines which effectively kill After day 100th of gestation, immune system infected cells and parasites while T helper 2 of fetus is competent to recognize and respond to cytokines work less effectively than the former antigens (Osburn et al., 1982). However, abortions (Quinn et al., 2002). Throughout the gestation, the due to neosporosis peaked during month 5th -7th of ratio of Th2:Th1 increases because of the gestation (Gonzalez et al., 1999; Moen et al., 1998). production of Th2 from the fetal tissue (Wegmann Challenging of pregnant cows with N. caninum et al., 1993). The modulation of response of Th2 oocyst at different stages of gestation results in may result in less necrosis and inflammation in the abortions at group infected at day 120th of placenta and fetus but favour survival of parasite pregnancy while there are no abortions in groups and its invasion to fetuses and subsequently infected at day 70th and 210th (Gondim et al., congenitally infected offspring (Williams et al., 2004a; McCann et al., 2007). This may be 2000). explained by the pattern of progesterone in the gestation of the cattle which increases steadily from early to mid-gestation then significantly declined 7. RISK FACTORS OF NEOSPOROSIS few weeks before parturition (Pope et al., 1969). 7.1. Risks of infection Supplementation of progesterone at mid-gestation increased the risk of abortion in Neospora-infected There are certain factors that play as risks of dairy cows and high antibody titer was reported infection in neosporosis. Studies of canine (Bech-Sabat et al., 2007). In addition, the peak neosporosis showed that seroprevalence of N. response of cell mediated immunity (CMI) to caninum is higher in dogs in rural areas than that in parasite occurs at the early and late gestation when dogs living in urban areas (Ferroglio et al., 2007; the level of progesterone is low (Innes et al., 2001). Hornok et al., 2006a; Sharma et al., 2008). Farm In other words, CMI responds to parasite less dogs are more likely to be positive than urban dogs, effectively at mid-gestation than at first and third house dogs and rescue dogs (Cruz-Vazquez et al., trimesters. When immune response of mother 2008; Hornok et al., 2006a; Paradies et al., 2007). changed to facilitate pregnancies, it might also Due to postnatal transmission, age has a positive favour the multiplication of parasite. As a result, correlation with the N. caninum sero-status in dogs modulation of CMI might influence the (Malmasi et al., 2007). Climate condition might recrudescence of a previous persistent infection influence the development of N. caninum oocysts causing bradyzoites to excyst resulting in then affect seroprevalence of animals living in that parasitaemia (Innes et al., 2001). Another region. In Spain, carnivores living in high humid suggestion is that as pregnancies progress to mid- areas have higher prevalence of antibodies to the gestation, parasite will have sufficient time for parasite (Sobrino et al., 2008). further implication (Lopez-Gatius et al., 2004b). Presence of dogs in farms increases risks of Those hypotheses may explain why abortion peaks being positive to N. caninum of cattle (Bartels et between month 5th and 7th of gestation. al., 2007). Rabbits and ducks are also a putative risk factor of seropositivity in cattle (Ould- In the third trimester, infection of N. caninum Amrouche et al., 1999). Risk of being positive usually predisposes persistently infected progeny, 32
  6. Epidemiology of Neospora caninum infection in animals increases with age and parity of cattle (Dyer et al., progesterone in mid-gestation of high antibody titer 2000; Sanderson et al., 2000). Seroprevalence of N. cattle increases abortion rate (Bech-Sabat et al., caninum is also different from breeds to breeds as 2007; Garcia-Ispierto et al., 2009). High humidity Limousin is reported to have lower sero-status climate was also a risk of abortion. The suggestion comparing with other breeds (Armengol et al., is that humid environment favored oocysts to 2007). In the same breeding condition, dairy cattle sporulate and to infect and cause abortion in cattle seem to be more vulnerable to N. caninum than (Wouda et al., 1999a). beef cattle (Moore et al., 2009). Infection of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis is reported to REFERENCES predispose seropositivity of N. caninum in cattle since the former disease harmfully affects the Akca, A., H. I.Gokce, C. S.Guy, J. W.McGarry, immune system of cattle and creates opportunity and D. J. Williams (2005). Prevalence of for the latter pathogen to infect animals (Rinaldi et antibodies to Neospora caninum in local and al., 2007). It is likely to be true that cattle with imported cattle breeds in the Kars province of higher antibody titer would have more chances to Turkey. Res Vet Sci 78, 123-6. transmit infection to their calves than cattle with Almeria, S., D. Ferrer, M. Pabon, J. Castella, and lower antibodies titer (More et al., 2009). In water S.Manas (2002). Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are a buffaloes, age and sex were reported to have natural intermediate host of Neospora caninum. influence on seroprevalence of animals since older Vet Parasitol 107, 287-94. and female buffaloes have higher risk of being Armengol, R., M. Pabon, P. Santolaria, O.Cabezon, positive than younger and male buffaloes, C.Adelantado, J.Yaniz, F. Lopez-Gatius, and S. respectively (Campero et al., 2007; Guarino et al., Almeria (2007). Low seroprevalence of 2000; Mohamad et al., 2007). Neospora caninum infection associated with the 7.2. Risks of abortion limousin breed in cow-calf herds in Andorra, Europe. J. Parasitol 93, 1029-32. Seropositive cows are more likely to abort than their negative counterparts (Gonzalez-Warleta Barber, J. S., and A. J.Trees (1996). Clinical et al., 2008; Moore et al., 2009). The abortion risk aspects of 27 cases of neosporosis in dogs. Vet increases with increasing levels of N. caninum Rec 139, 439-43. antibodies in individual animals (Kashiwazaki et Barber, J. S., and A. J.Trees (1998). Naturally al., 2004; Waldner, 2005). Herds with high occurring vertical transmission of Neospora prevalence of N. caninum antibodies are associated caninum in dogs. Int J Parasitol 28, 57-64. with increased risk of abortion (Hobson et al., Barr, B. C., P. A. Conrad, R. Breitmeyer, K. 2005; Schares et al., 2004). Age and parity of cattle Sverlow, M. L. Anderson, J.Reynolds, A. E. are found to be protective factors of abortion Chauvet, Dubey, and A. A.Ardans (1993). (Hernandez et al., 2002; Stahl et al., 2006). Congenital Neospora infection in calves born Presence of other animals in the farm contributed as from cows that had previously aborted either risk or protective factors to abortion of cattle. Neospora-infected fetuses: Four cases (1990- Farms with presence of dogs and horses are 1992). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc 202, 113-117. reported to have higher rate of pregnancy Barr, B. C., P. A. Conrad, K. W. Sverlow, A. F. termination whereas presence of cats in farms could Tarantal, and A. G. Hendrickx (1994). decrease abortion rate of dairy cattle (Hobson et al., Experimental fetal and transplacental Neospora 2005). Perhaps, cats had interrupted transmission of infection in the nonhuman primate. Lab.Investtig parasite from intermediate hosts like rats to dogs by 71, 236-242. eating them or replaced presence of dogs in farms Bartels, C. J., J. I. Arnaiz-Seco, A. Ruiz-Santa- then decreased the dissemination of parasites and Quitera, C. Bjorkman, J. Frossling, D. von abortion of cattle. The risk of abortion is 15.6 times Blumroder, F. J. Conraths, G. Schares, C. van higher in cows that did not produce IFN-γ than Maanen, W. Wouda, and L. M. Ortega-Mora sero-negative cows whereas neosporosis had no (2006). Supranational comparison of Neospora effects on seropositive cows that produce IFN-γ caninum seroprevalences in cattle in Germany, (Lopez-Gatius et al., 2007). High levels of The Netherlands, Spain and Sweden. Vet prolactin have protective effect on abortion rate Parasitol 137, 17-27. caused by neosporosis while supplementation of 33
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