critical thinking skills success_3

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LESSON 6 Troubleshooting LESSON SUMMARY This lesson is about taking care of the large and small problems that can get in your way and stall your progress. T thinking ahead. Before things do not go as planned, before you ROUBLESHO OTING IS AB OUT are faced with huge problems, you think through your situation, identify issues that could get in your way, and take care of them. When you troubleshoot, you anticipate what might go wrong and keep problems from growing by resolving them when they are of a more manageable size, or, you pre- vent them from coming into existence in the ﬁrst place. Troubleshooting is also about taking care of the setbacks that can stall you as you work toward reach- ing a goal. From small annoyances to major setbacks, these problems must be resolved in order to get where you need to go. I dentifying Problems That Interfere with Goals After you set a goal and begin working toward it, you will inevitably be faced with a roadblock or two. You learned in Lesson 1 that you can’t solve, or “troubleshoot” problems without ﬁrst acknowledging them and 51
– TROUBLESHOOTING – could ﬁnd a temporary solution such as working from that holds true for the problems that interfere with your a backup disk on someone else’s equipment. goals. Some of these problems are foreseeable; that is, Unexpected problems, by their nature, can’t be you can anticipate them before you even begin to work planned for. You must simply ﬁgure out the best way toward your goal. Others are unexpected and must be to solve them quickly and thoroughly and then get back dealt with as they arise. Unexpected problems are usu- on your path. The rest of this lesson focuses on trou- ally easier to spot, and easier to solve, even though you bleshooting the ﬁrst type of problem, because it is more have not prepared for them. Identifying foreseeable complex, being more difﬁcult to ﬁnd and more difﬁ- problems takes more work. You must honestly assess cult to solve. the goal you wish to achieve and think critically about what must be overcome in order to achieve it. An example of a foreseeable problem may be Practice found in Lesson 5, in which a goal-setting chart was List at least two of each type of problem that could arise presented. The goal is to get better grades, and the stu- in the following scenario. Note that while this example dent notes that “too much socializing” and “poor study involves a business setting, very similar problems occur skills” are the problems in his way. Before he even both at home and at school. When you are busy and begins to work toward achieving better grades, he your schedule is tight, you should be thinking seriously knows what he must overcome or solve in order to suc- about troubleshooting. cessfully reach his goal. Note that both problems are Lee has a meeting with his boss and three cowork- probably not simple for the student to solve, as they ers at 10:30 to discuss new business. He is expected to require breaking habits and acquiring new skills. Social- present some ideas for landing a speciﬁc new account. izing less means spending fewer hours with friends— He also has a conference scheduled across town at a not a desirable thing to do. Improving study skills major client’s ofﬁces for 11:30, in which he is to give an involves ﬁnding and learning information. update on progress made on the account. Unforeseeable problems are typically inconven- iences that get in your way as you work toward achiev- Foreseeable Problems: ing your goal. For instance, you are doing some research ______________________________________ for your boss and need a particular book from your local university’s library. When you go to pick it up, you ______________________________________ ﬁnd that it is already checked out. Another example of ______________________________________ an unforeseeable problem is technology hang-ups. Your computer could crash, or your printer could break Unexpected Problems: down as you are trying to get a report done by a dead- line. These problems are relatively easy to solve. In the ______________________________________ ﬁrst case, you have a number of possibilities. You can ______________________________________ ask for the book to be returned, ask the library to check other libraries for the book, or even look for it at book ______________________________________ stores if the price is reasonable. Technology problems might take an expert to ﬁx, but in the meantime, you 52
– TROUBLESHOOTING – A nswer the hospital to bill them directly? Do they require pre- Reponses will vary, but should include: approval? Do they have a time limit for claim ﬁling? Foreseeable Problems: Lee needs to adequately Once you understand exactly what they demand, you prepare for both meetings, which could take can follow their rules and get reimbursed. Your poten- more time than he originally scheduled. He tial problems, in other words, are deﬁned in this case may have to work late the night before, or as the rules for reimbursement. If you do not follow all put off other tasks until he is ready for the of them, you will not get your money. two meetings. Unexpected Problems: the ﬁrst meeting could Practice run over its allotted time, making Lee late for You agree to take your friend’s one-year-old son for his second meeting; Lee could have difﬁculty an afternoon while he attends a business meeting. getting to the client’s ofﬁce due to trafﬁc, You don’t know much about children, other than unavailability of taxis, etc.; Lee’s presentation having once been one yourself. How can you trou- could go poorly at one or both meetings. bleshoot the problems that you imagine you might encounter? Circle all answers that apply. a. Ask another friend with a baby to teach you how Troubleshooting Problems to change a diaper. That Interfere with Goals b. Rent some videos a one-year old boy might like. c. Read some child-rearing books. Troubleshooting foreseeable and potential problems d. Do some comparison shopping for size 12-month can be difﬁcult. It requires critical thinking skills to clothes. examine the path to your goal, and imagine or note all of the things that might go wrong as you work toward Answer achieving it. For example, you had minor outpatient All responses except choice d are examples of trou- surgery and received a bill for $8,500. You can submit bleshooting. You will not be expected to provide clothes it to your insurance company which will cover 80% of for your friend’s child but you will need to change his the cost. However, the company has rules for ﬁling diaper and entertain him. Child-rearing books could claims, including that they be submitted no later than give you some advice on how to handle the boy. 30 days after treatment. If you wait two months before trying to get reimbursed, you will lose $6,800. P revention Versus Cure Let’s look at this problem in terms of trou- bleshooting ahead of time. You have a very expensive bill to pay. You can solve that problem by ﬁling a claim Another type of troubleshooting involves problem- with your insurance company because it is a covered causing trends. If you are constantly faced with the expense. How can you determine the potential prob- same type of problem, you should look at how to pre- lems that could prevent you from being reimbursed vent it in the future. Figure out what is causing the $6,800? The best way is to familiarize yourself with all problem and how you make changes to stop it from of the rules of your insurance company. Do they require 53
– TROUBLESHOOTING – recurring. By employing this type of troubleshooting, you prevent a problem rather than always trying to solve it each time it occurs. Perhaps your boss meets with his boss every Friday morning to give an update as to your department’s progress. You begin to notice a trend. At 4:00 P.M. every Thursday, your boss starts to become irritable. He asks you to summarize what you and your colleagues have accomplished during the week. He always needs the sum- mary in an hour, no matter what other urgent business you have to tend to. Some weeks, you have had to drop important work to write the summary and it has given others the impression that you were not working hard enough. There are a number of ways in which you might prevent another such Thursday afternoon, rather than simply dealing with it the same way week after week. You could ask to speak with your boss about the summaries, and ﬁnd out if this will be your responsibility each week. If it is, you might consider asking your boss to alert the others in your department that every Thurs- day you will be busy from 4:00–5:00, so everyone is clear about what you are doing. Another possible solution would be to clear your own schedule on Thursday afternoons, or even begin work on the summary on Thursday morning, or even earlier in the week. If you know you will be expected to complete this task, you can troubleshoot by preventing it from becoming a crisis. Take control of your work schedule and be ready every Thursday for the inevitable job of writing the summary. Below is a graph you might want to use to explore possible troubleshooting methods. It can work for pre- ventative troubleshooting, as described in the section above, or for anticipated problems that will occur whether you are prepared for them or not. Troubleshooting Graph How to avoid it: Potential Problem #1 How to solve it: How to avoid it: Potential GOAL Problem #2 How to solve it: How to avoid it: Potential Problem #3 How to solve it: 54
– TROUBLESHOOTING – Here is a graph that has been completed to show what might happen if your goal was to graduate one semes- ter early. Potential How to avoid it: Not applicable Problem #1: I need 96 How to solve it: Take two courses every summer credits Potential GOAL: How to avoid it: Ask if I can be given Problem #2: to graduate my diploma in May rather than January won’t be in one semester graduation How to solve it: Accept it, I still have early ceremony what I want Potential How to avoid it: Ask if I can attend anyway Problem #3: will miss on- campus alumni How to solve it: Use the alumni directory to job fair contact alumni for job information on my own Practice Scenario: you are asked by your boss to order the food for your annual company picnic. She anticipates that 70 coworkers will attend. Last year, 65 people were at the picnic and they consumed 50 hamburgers and 40 hot dogs. You know there will be a problem if you order too much or too little food. How can you troubleshoot these prob- lems? Potential How to avoid it: Problem #1: How to solve it: GOAL: Potential How to avoid it: Problem #2: How to solve it: 55
– TROUBLESHOOTING – A nswer Answers will vary, but yours might include: Potential How to avoid it: send out questionnaire Problem #1: asking people to say what they will eat Too much How to solve it: pack leftovers in ice-filled food coolers, freeze, and have another “picnic” in the office a few weeks later GOAL: order the right amount of food Potential How to avoid it: send out questionnaire Problem #2: asking people to say what they will eat Too little How to solve it: call pizzeria on cell phone food from picnic and place order for delivery I n Short Troubleshooting begins with identifying those problems that will or may get in the way of your achieving your goals. You might know about them ahead of time, and even be able to prevent them, or keep minor problems from becoming major. Or, you may encounter them as they arise without warning. Either way, knowing how to ﬁnd solutions and move forward will ensure that you reach your destination. Skill Building Until Next Time ■ Practice troubleshooting someone else’s problems. When a friend tells you about his or her cur- rent dilemma, think about how they might have prevented it or how they can solve it. ■ Practice troubleshooting a global issue. Read a few articles on an issue of international impor- tance, such as the crisis in the Middle East or global warming. Use the troubleshooting graph to work through possible ways to avoid or resolve the problems that may or will result from this issue. 56
LESSON 7 Finding Resources LESSON SUMMARY Sometimes you may find yourself facing a complicated decision for which you do not have all the facts to resolve. Other times, especially at work or school, you may be asked to justify your decisions. This les- son is about finding the information you need to make decisions and create solutions. T problems and decisions that require little more from us than sorting through HERE ARE MANY familiar details. For instance, you do not need to gather much information to decide about whether to ask for a raise or when to study for an exam. You already know the facts; you must simply use them wisely to come to a decision. But what if you do not know what to base a decision on? What if there are factors that need to be con- sidered that you are not familiar with? Thinking critically means being armed with accurate information, because the quality of your solutions and decisions is only as good as the information you use to make them. This lesson considers three types of resources: the Internet, the library, and human resources. The next sec- tion explores each, explaining when to use them, the best ways to get the most out of them, and their pos- sible shortcomings. 57
– FINDING RESOURCES – I nternet Resources Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com): links by subject to ■ more than two million sites Although you are literally able to access billions of web- The third way to ﬁnd what you are looking for on sites, research on the Internet does not have to be con- the Internet is to search directly on a site at which you fusing. You just need to know what you are looking for believe the information may be found. Here is a short and determine the best way to ﬁnd it. There are three list of such sites. basic search methods. The ﬁrst is to use a search engine, such as Google (www.google.com) or AllTheWeb Encyclopedias (www.alltheweb.com), enter search terms, and ﬁnd Xrefer.com: London-based reference book links to the information you are looking for. You can search engine; searches over 50 encyclope- also use meta-search engines, which go through many dias, dictionaries (in many categories), and sites at one time. For example, Surfwax (www.surf thesauri wax.com) searches Yahoo!, AOL, CNN, WiseNut, Encyclopedia.com: Columbia Encyclopedia, LookSmart, and others, and lists the results together. 6th edition Neither search engine distinguishes between “good” Britannica.com: the ﬁrst few paragraphs of and “bad” sites. They simply list everything they can each article are free, so if you need very basic ﬁnd (sometimes thousands of links) that meet your facts, chances are you will get them; for $50 search criteria. per year you can have total access to the site Another way to search the Internet is by using Encarta.com: some entire entries are free, oth- subject directories. The great advantage of this method ers are blocked to those who have not paid is that the sites the directories list have been chosen by $69 per year for the CD-ROM or DVD qualiﬁed people. Websites deemed to be of poor qual- Education.yahoo.com/reference: search the ity are less likely to make the directory. Some directo- American Heritage Dictionary, Gray’s ries even hire experts in various ﬁelds to write guides Anatomy, the U.S. Government’s World Fact- to their chosen subjects and also to provide links to book, and others related sites. Recommended subject directories include: Dictionaries About.com (www.about.com): over 50,00 sub- ■ Dictionary.com: searches a dozen dictionaries jects with links to a million websites at one time, including American Heritage Academic Info (www.academicinfo.net): con- ■ (fourth edition), Webster’s Revised sistently maintained to add free educational Unabridged (1998), Princeton University’s resources (for late high school level and above) WordNet, and the CIA World Factbook while weeding out outdated ones M-W.com: Merriam Webster’s older dictionar- Librarian’s Index (www.lii.org): over 11,000 ■ ies searched free; for access to the new Internet resources selected as “the best” by eleventh edition, the annual fee is $14.95 librarians (merriam-webstercollegiate.com) Infomine (www.infomine.ucr.edu): aimed at ■ university-level instructors and students, con- tains 115,000 Internet resources selected by university librarians 58
– FINDING RESOURCES – O ther Fact-Checking Sites R oadblock to Good Resources www.bibliomania.com: search for author biog- raphies, as well as through full texts of ﬁc- What is the most common obstacle to ﬁnding factual, tion, drama, and poetry pertinent information? It is the proliferation of poorly www.ﬁndarticles.com: search back issues of researched, or even knowingly false, data. Primarily over 300 magazines and journals covering a found on the Internet, ﬁction posing as facts, or sim- wide variety of subjects ply slipshod work, can look like the real thing because www.nilesonline.com/data: links to ﬁnd statis- legitimate websites with accurate content reside side- tics and other facts about government, by-side with poor quality sites. It can be difﬁcult to tell crime, health, politics, and more the difference. www.refdesk.com: ﬁnd maps, calculators, cur- The best way to avoid reliance on poor informa- rency converters, newspapers (from local tion is to be suspicious. Do not take any information U.S. to international), as well as dictionaries you ﬁnd on the Internet as truth until you can sub- and encyclopedias stantiate it with duplicate information on at least three www.martindalecenter.com: check facts on other sites. Read the tips in Lesson 8 for more about everything from world poetry to organic evaluating the quality and content of websites. chemistry, patents to computer viruses Practice Practice You are building a house and need to decide how to Answer (T) true or (F) false for the statements below. heat it. The contractor can put in a natural gas, ___ 1. Search engines direct you to the best sites propane, or electric furnace. You want to choose the about the subject you are researching. option that is the least expensive to operate. A search ___ 2. Doing research on the Internet sometimes on the Internet yields ﬁve results. Which website(s) costs money. will most likely have the information you need to ___ 3. Subject directories are created by computers. make a decision? ___ 4. Some search engines search many other 1. www.epa.org: the Environmental Protection search engines at the same time. Agency ___ 5. You can only ﬁnd statistics at a library. 2. www.ashrae.org/: the American Society of Heat- ing, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engi- Answer neers 1. False 3. www.forestry.ext.edu: educational site about the 2. True use of wood in home heating units 3. False 4. www.electricfurnaceswebe.com: retailer of elec- 4. True tric powered home heating units 5. False 5. www.energycodes.gov: Kansas State University’s Engineering Extension website 59
– FINDING RESOURCES – well-written (see Lesson 8 for information on A nswer Numbers 2 and 5 will probably contain the most accu- how to evaluate a website). Published books rate, pertinent information. The EPA site considers and periodicals, on the other hand, have been environmental factors, such as pollution, which may through many layers of safety nets before they result from certain types of home hetaing. The forestry reach the shelves of a library. They are typically site is not relevant to your decision. A retailer of fur- written, edited, proofread, fact-checked, pub- naces is in business to make a sale, not necessarily to lished, and then selected by a librarian for pur- give you accurate information about how they compare chase. to a competitor’s product. 4. Finding anything that is not historical or cur- rent. The Internet is a great resource for infor- mation that is either very old or very new. For T he Librar y—Print Resources instance, you can ﬁnd the Magna Carta, and current state and federal statutes, but legal Although it might sometimes seem otherwise, every- research on anything in the early to mid-twen- thing of interest that has ever been written is not on the tieth century is difﬁcult to nearly impossible on Internet, nor can it be searched for on the Internet. the Internet. There are still ﬁve important reasons to do research at 5. Price. The use of a library, including all of its the library. electronic services, is free. Some of the research resources on the Internet are not. There are 1. Librarians. They are trained professionals who sites that give away some information, but know how to ﬁnd what you are looking for, charge for full access to their site. Others will whether in the stacks or online. not let you in at all unless you are a subscriber. 2. Non-searchable print. There are millions of Some Internet resources charge prohibitively books and other print materials that have not high subscription prices, such as the Oxford made it to the web. Most of the American English Dictionary (currently $550 per year). Library Association’s “Outstanding Reference Libraries often pay these prices and provide full Sources” are not online. In addition, the human access. power to key in or scan every old, deteriorating text, such as back issues of journals, magazines, Practice and newspapers, does not exist. But they may List ﬁve types of information you are more likely to ﬁnd be found in libraries either in print or on in a library rather than on the Internet. microﬁlm or microﬁche. 1. ______________________________________ 3. Reliability of information. Not all of the infor- mation you ﬁnd on the Internet is accurate. 2. ______________________________________ Anyone can “publish” online, and it is not 3. ______________________________________ always easy to distinguish between reliable and unreliable websites. Many sites containing 4. ______________________________________ bogus information appear professional and 5. ______________________________________ 60
– FINDING RESOURCES – term, between a 15- and a 20-year mortgage. Related A nswer Responses will vary, but using the guidelines in this sec- questions may be answered without consulting other tion on Library Resources, you may have mentioned websites or print resources. topics that might be found in back issues of local news- papers or periodicals, or in reference books that charge Checking Credentials high subscription rates on the Internet. Also listed As with other types of resources, before relying on an could be facts about obscure subjects or documents expert, determine that the person has the proper cre- from the early to mid-twentieth century. dentials. Ask questions about where they are getting their information from. On what sources do they rely? How are they qualiﬁed to provide you with the infor- G oing to the Experts mation you are looking for? For example, you need to know how many people have used your town park’s Sometimes, you can’t ﬁnd out what you need to know picnic area this summer. You call your Recreation and from a website or the library. The information might Parks Department and ask if someone can help you. be very timely, such as interest rates on mortgages that The director of the department gives you a number in change daily, or it just might not be published (such as answer to your question. You can then ask where the someone’s opinion on a given subject). In such a case, number came from. Did they look up records of who you need to ﬁnd a person or people who have the infor- reserved the park space and how many people they mation you are looking for. included in the permits, or are they estimating based Experts are simply those who know their subjects on previous years’ usage? For more information about and can be relied upon to supply correct information. checking credentials, read Lesson 8. They might know about it because they have studied it or worked with it long enough to be considered Practice highly informed. Getting information from an expert The college you will attend in the fall has a rule that can be simple. You might just have to look up a num- all incoming freshman must take at least two courses ber in the phone book and make a quick call. Or, it can outside their major during their ﬁrst year at the involve a number of steps. You might need to do some school. After looking at the course catalog, you deter- research ﬁrst to ﬁnd your expert. That could mean ask- mine that you only have room for one such course. ing around or using the resources of your library or the You need to know how steadfastly the college main- Internet. Once you have a name and contact informa- tains this rule. Must you drop a course in your major, tion then you can proceed to gather information. or can you take a required course outside your major The great beneﬁt of ﬁnding an expert you can as a sophomore? How will you get the information trust, who has the facts you need, is that he or she can you need? save you time. Instead of hunting for information from a. write a letter to the President of the college sources that may or may not yield what you are look- b. check the school’s website ing for, you have a reliable source. A loan ofﬁcer at your c. look it up in the brochure bank will know exactly what the current mortgage rate d. call the registrar is and be able to explain the difference in cost, long- 61
– FINDING RESOURCES – A nswer I n Short The registrar, d, who oversees the college’s course reg- istration process, probably has the answer to your ques- Your solutions and decisions are only as good as the tion. The President of the college is most likely not information you use to make them. Sometimes that involved in details regarding course registration. The information is close-at-hand and you need only deal brochure and website might mention the rule, but with facts already known to you. In other instances, you probably do not get into a discussion about whether may need to do some research. The three best resources there is any ﬂexibility in its application. to consult are the Internet, the library, and other peo- ple (experts). Knowing how and when to use each type of resource can mean the difference between making an uninformed decision, and standing solidly behind the facts as you solve problems and decide among var- ious options. Skill Building Until Next Time ■ Which type of Internet resource are you least familiar with? If you have never used a meta-search engine, spend some time making practice searches. You might want to compare your results with those found at a resource you use frequently. Visit some of the sites mentioned earlier in this les- son and see what each has to offer. Follow some of their links to find more information that may be of interest to you. ■ The next time you have a doctor’s appointment, think before you go about health-related ques- tions you would like answered. Write them down, and consult the expert during your exam. 62
LESSON 8 Evaluating Facts LESSON SUMMARY In this lesson, you will learn about the difference between fact and opin- ion. In addition, you will learn how to differentiate between accurate, objective information and that which is false and/or biased. M agree that a newspaper is a good source of recent factual infor- O S T P E O P L E WO U L D mation. However, the last time you were in the supermarket checkout line did you notice a newspaper (or two, or three?) with headlines about the impending end of the life on Earth, or about alien encounters with political ﬁgures, or monkeys with children’s heads attached? You know the difference between these types of newspapers and the Los Angeles Times and USA Today. The latter are widely agreed to be trustworthy resources, while the former are considered entertainment. But there is more to determining accuracy and objectivity in informational sources than being able to tell the difference between news reporting and a story about the prophecies of Nostradamus. The dif- ferences between truthful, impartial resources and those that claim to be can be subtle and therefore the development of a skeptical eye is necessary before you rely on any resource to make an important decision or solve a problem. If you take everything you read, see, and hear at face value (that is, as factual and unbiased), you may rely on ﬁction rather than fact. In such a case, not only will your decision or solution be questioned, but you might end up looking less intelligent as well. Finding resources is not enough—you need to become a 63
– EVALUATING FACTS – skeptic. Look at each resource with a critical eye to Trusting the Source determine which ones you can trust and which you can’t. Not everyone who gives out information is telling the truth. Pretty obvious, you think, and many times you are right. You probably don’t take newspaper accounts F act Versus Opinion of 400-year-old prophecies coming true seriously, even though you see them in print. But what about a docu- Facts are objective statements whose truth can be ver- mentary that purports to reveal the same thing? Can iﬁed. If a fact is true, then it is always true. For exam- you be fooled by the delivery of the information, with ple, “Hawaii became a state in 1959.” It is simple to do fancy sets and a well-known actor as narrator, to believ- some research to verify that Hawaii did, indeed, join the ing what you might otherwise dismiss? United States in that year. Newspaper articles are In order to trust the source of any information, another example of facts. They are intended to be you need to determine the agenda of the person or objective reports of occurrences. The opinion of the organization disseminating it. Are they simply trying reporter should not interfere with, or be a part of, the to relay facts, or are they trying to get you to believe article. something or change your mind on a subject? It can be An opinion is a subjective statement based on difﬁcult to ﬁnd a direct answer to that question; you can personal beliefs. Therefore, they are never true for begin to get a clearer picture by looking into the everyone. For example, “Hawaii is the most beautiful following: state in the country.” We know this is based on a per- sonal belief because of the word “beautiful,” which is What are the author’s credentials on this sub- ■ subjective and therefore open to debate. There are many ject? Is he or she qualiﬁed to write on the topic people who would disagree with the statement, choos- based on background or education? For some ing a different state as the most beautiful. subjects, it is acceptable to use information obtained from a hobbyist, self-proclaimed Practice expert, or enthusiast, if you can verify it else- Label each statement as either (F) fact or (O) opinion. where. However, most factual information ___ 1. The Civil War started at Fort Sumter in 1861. should be obtained from a reputable source. ___ 2. Crème brulee is the most delicious dessert. And since you need to verify anyway, why not ___ 3. I went to Minnesota for a vacation last year. use information, for instance, derived from Yale ___ 4. Putting money in the stock market is a bad University’s Thomas Hardy Association, rather idea. than from John Doe’s personal web page hom- age to his favorite writer? Answer Does the author document sources? Where do ■ 1. Fact relevant facts and ﬁgures come from? If you are 2. Opinion consulting print material, there should be foot- 3. Fact notes and a bibliography that show the author’s 4. Opinion sources. On the Internet, you may also ﬁnd such documentation, or sources may be docu- 64
– EVALUATING FACTS – mented by using links to other websites (see the them with a critical eye. If you are searching for section below on evaluating a website based on someone with a radical or controversial view, links). Even documentaries, to use a previous you will probably ﬁnd detractors. A handful example, should cite sources in their credits. should not deter you, but pages of negative Are the sources balanced and reputable? Pages information might. ■ of footnotes are meaningless if they simply indicate that the author used untrustworthy Practice sources, too. Check some of the sources to ver- Terrell has been assigned a term paper that will test ify that they are accurate and unbiased. For how well he and his class have learned research skills. example, a book on gun laws that relies heavily He must write objectively on the subject of U.S. Mili- on material published by the National Riﬂe tary spending and has been given a list of possible Association is not as reliable a source as sources for information. Which source or sources another book on the subject that uses a wide will provide the most objective information? variety of sources representing both sides of the a. Congressional Budget Ofﬁce issue. b. The National Riﬂe Association What do others say about the author c. Alliance of Defense Contractors ■ (whether individual or group)? A quick way to d. Center for World Peace check for opinions is to “Google” the author. Simply put his or her name (or the name of the Answer group if there is no individual author) in the The best place for Terrell to look for balanced infor- search box on www.google.com. The results mation is a, the Congressional Budget Ofﬁce. It is what can be revealing. However, remember to read its name implies: a non-partisan organization that pro- Determining Bias While every author, like every person, has opinions about most subjects, authors of factual infor- mation are often assumed to be without such bias. Bias in this context refers to a preference that makes one prejudiced. Newspaper and television reporters, for example, are expected to deliver the facts without offering an opinion. However, you should never assume a lack of bias. As a skep- tical reader, be aware of its existence and keep an eye out for it. The more you agree with an author or a subject, the more you should consider whether it is biased. For example, the 24-hour cable news channel, Fox News, uses the phrase “fair and balanced” to describe its coverage. However, there are many critics who have accused the channel of being biased. Try watching and reading the news from a variety of sources. Check for differences in story coverage: who spent more time on the four-alarm fire than on the orphanage story? Who skipped the orphanage story to cover more of a politician’s hand-shaking opportunities that day? You may also be interested in finding out more about the reporters and commentators who deliver the news. Are they former politicians or political speech writers? Do they have affiliations with special inter- est groups? What, if any, are their biases? 65
– EVALUATING FACTS – vides budget analysis for the government. You may infer part of the web address, continuing from right from the names of the National Riﬂe Association, to left until you reach the publisher. Does this Alliance of Defense Contractors, and Center for World publisher claim responsibility for the content? Peace that they are organizations with very speciﬁc Does it explain why the page exists in any way? agendas. They would therefore probably not be good If not, you cannot determine the authority of sources of objective information. the site. 2. What are the qualiﬁcations of the individual or group responsible for the page for writing H ow to Evaluate Information on this topic? See the section on verifying an Found on the Internet author’s credentials above. 3. Can you verify the legitimacy of the individ- ual or group? Does the person or group exist as Anyone can publish on the Internet. It takes very little, they say they do? It should be relatively easy to both in terms of money and skill level, to create a web- determine this for both groups who publish site that offers information on any subject. Therefore, online and for well-known individual authors. the existence and look of a website is not an indication For others, you may e-mail an individual (if an of its value as a resource. Content should never be pre- address is provided) to ask about credentials sumed to be truthful and unbiased. That said, the and legitimacy, but this is not foolproof. Con- Internet is a great resource for accurate and objective sider anyone whose legitimacy is difﬁcult to information. You must simply learn how to discern establish as a source of opinion, rather than between legitimate and bogus information on the fact. Internet. Determine Who Wrote the Page Practice The ﬁrst step in determining the legitimacy of Internet Which of the following web addresses are probably information is to evaluate it in terms of authority. You personal web pages? should be able to ﬁnd answers to the following three a. www.members.aol.com/jspinner582/ questions to establish authority: b. www.stateuniversity.edu c. www.getthefacts.com/republican/~randyc/ 1. Who wrote or takes responsibility for the con- d. http://ﬁghtforrights.org tent of the page? Look for the name and con- tact information (more than an e-mail address) Answer of the author, who may be an individual, or an Choices a and c are most likely personal web pages. organization or institution. If no author is AOL hosts millions of personal web pages through its listed, you may ﬁnd out who published the hometown and member services. The tilde in answer page by shortening the URL. Remove the last c gives it away as a personal page. part of the web address located to the right of the last slash, and click on search. If you don’t get to the publisher’s page, remove the next 66
– EVALUATING FACTS – Tales a Web Page Address (URL) Tells ■ Businesses or others trying to sell or promote products, as well as news pages, typically end in .com (“com” meaning commercial). ■ Informational websites, such as those established by government or educational groups usu- ally end in .gov, .mil, .edu, .us, or another country code. ■ Organizations that try to influence public opinion (such as the Democratic and Republican parties) and non-profit groups should end in .org. ■ The most potentially unreliable source of information on the Internet is personal web pages. They can be difﬁcult to spot because some web hosts, such as Yahoo!, provide domain names to each customer. That means an individual’s web page would have an address ending in *.com. However, some personal pages are easy to identify. The presence of a tilde (~) in the address somewhere is one giveaway. For instance, some URLs that contain *.edu, which may appear at ﬁrst glance to be educational, also have a tilde and a person’s name in them. That’s because some educational insti- tutions offer free or low-cost web pages to their students, employees, and/or alumni. It is important to look at the whole URL and not just a part of it. Judge the Accuracy of the Check Dates Legitimate websites are dated. They typically include Content There are a few giveaways of marginal content. Review the date the site was written, when it was launched, as the website for the following: well as the last time it was updated. Without these dates, you cannot with any certainty use the information 1. Sources of factual information should be found on the site, especially if it is of a factual or sta- clearly listed so they can be veriﬁed elsewhere. tistical nature. If you have dates, ask yourself: Do not accept anything as fact that you can’t verify at least three times, in three unique Is the information current enough for your ■ locations. needs? 2. Factual information should come directly from If you are looking for time-sensitive informa- ■ its source. A statistic from the Wall Street Jour- tion, are the facts you found stale or do they nal is more likely to be correct if you get it from represent the latest ﬁndings? their website (http://online.wsj.com/public/us), If your information is not time-sensitive, was it ■ rather than rely on it as printed somewhere placed on the Internet near the time it else. Always go to the source website (if one occurred? exists) or print material to check facts. Has the page been updated a relatively short ■ 3. There should be no grammatical, spelling, or time ago or could the author have abandoned typographical errors. Not only do these errors it? indicate weak or nonexistent editing, but they can lead to inaccuracies in information. 67
– EVALUATING FACTS – U se Links to Evaluate a Site Quotes that have been retyped may contain errors, have Most websites use links to help you move from their site been deliberately altered, or be complete fakes. The best to other web pages. These links may be used to docu- way to check is to ﬁnd the information somewhere else, ment sources (think of them as the Internet equivalent preferably at its source. of footnotes) or simply to take you to more informa- For example, you ﬁnd a website that claims the tion about the topic which may be of interest. Earth’s human population is decreasing. It cites an expert who is quoted in the magazine Scientiﬁc Amer- If there are links to other pages as sources, ask yourself ican. You can go the magazine’s website and search its the following: archives for $7.95. Or, check with your public library, which may have back issues, or a subscription to the Do the links work? online archives so your search will be free. ■ Are they to reliable sources or only to other Keep in mind that material reproduced from ■ locations on the same website? another publication, if it is legitimate, will probably If they take you to more information on include both a link to the original source (if it’s online), ■ the subject, are they well chosen and well and copyright information and permission to repro- organized? duce or reprint. If there is a link, be certain it is from Do the links represent other viewpoints? the original source. ■ Do they indicate a bias? ■ Practice If other pages link themselves to the page you are Answer (T) true or (F) false for each of the following considering as a source, ask yourself: statements. Who links to the page? (read all points of view Evaluating sources and content found on the Inter- ■ if more than one may be found) net is important because: How many links are there? (higher numbers ___ 1. authors who publish on the Internet are less ■ may generally be a good sign) professional than those who publish in print. What kinds of sites link to it (do they all repre- ___ 2. writers for the web are always biased. ■ sent the same point of view, giving the same ___ 3. anyone can publish on the Internet; there is information)? no guarantee that what you are reading is Are there any links to directories? Are the direc- truthful or objective. ■ tories themselves discriminating or do they ___ 4. information found in print is always more accept any and all sites? accurate than that found on the Internet Verify Reproduced Information Answer If the website includes quotes, statistics, or other infor- 1. False mation purported to be from another source, check it 2. False for accuracy. Never assume that simply because the 3. True words or numbers are printed, they are correct. 4. False 68
– EVALUATING FACTS – I n Short research and documentation, and bias from every source. Focusing on the Internet, which can be a haz- In Lesson 7, you learned that thinking critically means ardous place to ﬁnd information, we explored ways of being armed with accurate information. The quality of evaluating any of the billions of web pages you may your solutions and decisions is only as good as the come across in your research. You learned why it is information you use to make them. This lesson important to ﬁnd the author and dates for each web- showed how to evaluate that information, differenti- site, as well as how to judge the accuracy of its content, ating between accurate, objective data, and that which and how to use its links to further evaluate a site. is false and/or biased. Critical thinking skills are enhanced when you We began by differentiating between fact and learn how to evaluate the information you receive. opinion. Then, we looked at the source of information, Never assume something is true without checking ﬁrst or the author. How can you trust the source? Only after and do not take for granted a source’s unbiased view- you examine his or her credentials and sources. Keep point. Think for yourself! a skeptical eye out for opinion posing as fact, inferior Skill Building Until Next Time ■ Read an article printed in a magazine and note its author. Does the magazine itself tell you any- thing about his or her credentials? Look up the author on the Internet to see if you can find what expertise, if any, he or she has in the subject. ■ The next time you hear a fact on a televised news story, try to substantiate it. Remember the rule of threes: find it in three different sources before accepting it as fact. 69

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