Summary of Biology doctoral thesis: A study on biological characteristics and essential oil composition of Zingiber Boehm. and Hedychium Koen. (Zingiberaceae Lindl.) in the North Central of Vietnam

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Researching objectives: Describing some biological characteristics and distribution of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam; determining the essential oil chemical composition; antimicrobial and antimosquito larvae activities of essential oils of some Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam.

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Nội dung Text: Summary of Biology doctoral thesis: A study on biological characteristics and essential oil composition of Zingiber Boehm. and Hedychium Koen. (Zingiberaceae Lindl.) in the North Central of Vietnam

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND VIETNAM ACADEMY TRAINING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY GRADUATE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ----------------------------- TRINH THI HUONG A STUDY ON BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ESSENTIAL OIL COMPOSITION OF Zingiber Boehm. AND Hedychium Koen. (ZINGIBERACEAE Lindl.) IN THE NORTH CENTRAL OF VIETNAM Major: Botany Code: 9.42.01.11 SUMMARY OF BIOLOGY DOCTORAL THESIS Supervisors: 1. Dr. Do Ngoc Dai 2. Dr. Nguyen Thi Thanh Huong HANOI - 2021
This dissertation has been carried out at The Graduate University of Science and Technology - Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology Supervisors: 1. Dr. Do Ngoc Dai 2. Dr. Nguyen Thi Thanh Huong The 1st Reviewer: The 2nd Reviewer: The 3rd Reviewer: The dissertation will be defended at the Board of Examiners of Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology at …. on ... The dissertation can be found at the National Library of Vietnam and Library of Graduate University of Science and Technology
1 INTRODUCTION 1. The urgency of the dissertation topic Zingiberaceae Lindl., consists of perennial herbaceous plants with transverse rhizomes or tubers, mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical countries. Zingiber Boehm. and Hedychium Koen. are commonly used in traditional medicine and in food processing. Nowadays, the demand for using essential oil products of plants is increasing day by day. Furthermore, essential oils from species in the Zingiber and Hedychium have shown antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant and insecticidal activities. Thus, they are likely to be Used as safer alternatives to synthetic antibiotics, antifungals, mosquito repellents, pesticides, and in beauty treatments. The North Central region is the intersection of the flora stream from the North to the South, and is also home to many special-use forests, so the flora is very rich and diverse. However, many species in the ginger genus Zingiber (Zingiber) and the genus Wormwood (Hedychium) have not been fully studied for the plant and essential oil chemistry. Therefore, the author chose the topic: "A study on biological characteristics and essential oil composition of Zingiber Boehm. and Hedychium Koen. (Zingiberaceae Lindl.) in the North Central of Vietnam”. 2. Researching objectives - Describing some biological characteristics and distribution of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam. - Determining the essential oil chemical composition; antimicrobial and anti- mosquito larvae activities of essential oils of some Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam. 3. Scientific and practical significances of the study - Scientific significances + Updating, supplement and systematic data on the diversity of Zingiber and Hedychium from north-central Vietnam; + Providing new data on the content and chemical composition of essential oils of thirty nine samples of twelve Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam; + Providing new data on the antimicrobial activities of thirteen essential oil samples of five Zingiber and Hedychium species; and anti-larvae activity of six essential oil samples of four Zingiber species from north-central Vietnam. - Practical significances On the basis of the scientific arguments obtained, the research results of the dissertation contribute information for admistratorsin developing strategies to conservation, development and exploitation of valuable species of Zingiber and Hedychium, Zingiberaceae Lindl., from north-central Vietnam in particular and in Vietnam in general. 4. Structure of the dissertation The dissertation consists of 141 pages, 24 tables, 5 pictures, and 20 pictures are
2 structured into the following main sections: Introduction (02 pages); Chapter 1: Literature review (22 pages); Chapter 2: Subjects, contents and study methods (08 pages); Chapter 3: Results and discussion (106 pages); Conclusions and recommendations (02 pages); New contributions of the dissertation; List of published works related to the dissertation; References (170 documents, updated to May 2021); and Appendix parts CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1. Studying plants on Zingiberaceae Lindl. 1.1.1. In the world C. Linnaeus (1753) was the first to classify family Ginger. In 1835, Lindley took the genus Zingiber name as the standard genus to name the family Ginger is Zingiberaceae. Since then, there have been many studies on Zingiberaceae Lindl., typically P. Sirirugsa (1998), K. Larsen et al. (1998), J. Kress et al. (2002), K. Larsen and S.S. Larsen (2006), A. Lamb et al. (2013), J. M. Christenhusz and J. W. Byng (2016), ... According to The Plant List, Zingiberaceae consists of 52 genera with 1587 accepted name species. 1.1.2. In Vietnam J. Loureiro (1793), Gagnepain (1908), Lê Khả Kế et al. (1975), Phạm Hoàng Hộ (1993, 2000), Nguyễn Quốc Bình (2005, 2017), … There are no systematic studies on Zingiberaceae in north-central Vietnam, but only individual statistics on this family, such as Nguyễn Nghĩa Thìn and Mai Văn Phô (2003), Nguyễn Nghĩa Thìn and Nguyễn Thanh Nhàn (2004), Đỗ Ngọc Đài and Lê Thị Hương (2010), Đậu Bá Thìn et al. (2013), Võ Minh Sơn et al. (2015), Lê Thị Hương et al. (2015), Đậu Bá Thìn et al. (2017), Nguyễn Danh Hùng et al. (2018). 1.2. Studying plants on Zingiber and Hedychium 1.2.1. Zingiber Boehm. 1.2.1.1. In the world Boehm (1760), T. L. Wu and K. Larsen (2000), P. Triboun (2006), R. Kumar et al. (2015), M. M. Aung and N. Tanaka (2019), … 1.2.1.2. In Vietnam Gagnepain (1908); Phạm Hoàng Hộ (1993); J. Škorničková, Nguyễn Quốc Bình et al. (2015); Lý Ngọc Sâm (2017); … In north-central Vietnam: Some separate statistics on Zingiber in the studies of Đậu Bá Thìn et al. (2013, 2017), Võ Minh Sơn (2015), Nguyễn Danh Hùng et al. (2018), … 1.2.2. Hedychium Koen. 1.2.1.1. In the world Koenig (1783), C. T. L. Wu and K. Larsen (2000), M. F. Newman et al. (2007), P. Thomas et al. (2015), … 1.2.1.2. In Vietnam Phạm Hoàng Hộ (2000), Nguyễn Quốc Bình (2017), … In north-central Vietnam: There are some separate statistics on this genus in the
3 studies of Đậu Bá Thìn et al. (2013, 2017), Võ Minh Sơn (2015), Nguyễn Danh Hùng et al. (2018), … 1.3. Using values of Zingiber and Hedychium Species A lot of Zingiber and Hedychium species are used as medicine, flavoring agent, and flavoring agent. In addition, a few Hedychium species are also used in cosmetics, perfumes and ornamental plants. They are used very popularly in China, Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam. 1.4. General information of essential oils 1.4.1. Essential oil plant definition The essential oil plants are plants containing specialized structures thatare responsible for secreting and accumulating essential oils. 1.4.2. Define and characteristics of essential oils Essential oils can be defined as a mixture of volatile and natural substances, characterized by a strong odor and produced by aromatic plants as secondary metabolites. 1.4.3. Chemistry of Essential Oils According to V. P. S. Rao and D. Pandey (2006), there are more than 200 components present in the mixture of pure essential oils. They can be categorized into two classes: Volatile fraction: 90 - 95% of total oil weight. It contains monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and their oxygenated derivatives. Nonvolatile residue: 1 - 10% of of total essential oil in weight. It contains fatty acids, hydrocarbons, sterols, waxes, flavonoids, and carotenoids. 1.5. Study on Zingiber and Hedychium essential oils Most Zingiber and Hedychium species contain essential oils. Content and chemical composition of essential oils in each species are different and often different in the same species if collected in different geographical regions. 1.6. Natural, economic and social conditions in north-central Vietnam 1.6.1. Geographical location Including 6 provinces: Thanh Hoá, Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh, Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên - Huế. 1.6.2. Topography, geomorphology There are 3 main types: Mountain: mostly lowland; Hills: occupies a fairly large area; and Plain: medium size. 1.6.3. Climate, rivers Climate: Both the tropical monsoon climate with cold winters in the northern climate of Vietnam, and the anomalous characteristics of the monsoon tropics with wet and wet seasons of the East Truong Son. Rivers: There is an average altitude across the basin reaching 300-700 m, with a great slope (18-22%). 1.6.4. Natural and socio-economic conditions The total area is 51,180.5 km2, with a total population of 10,500,000 people. There are many ethnic groups such as: Kinh, Tày, Thái, Thổ, Mường, Dao, H'mông,
4 Khơ Mú, Đan Lai, Bru-Vân Kiều, Cơ Tu, Tà Ôi, Chút. 1.6.5. Plant conditions Five National Parks: Bến En, Pù Mát, Vũ Quang, Phong Nha Kẻ Bàng and Bạch Mã. Nine Nature Reserves: Pù Luông, Pù Hu, Xuân Liên, Pù Hoạt, Pù Huống, Kẻ Gỗ, Bắc Hướng Hóa, Đa krông và Phong Điền. CHAPTER 2: SUBJECTS, CONTENTS AND METHODS 2.1. Study subjects Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam. Total number of samples has been researched over 200 with a total of about 100 sample numbers. 2.2. Study timing and placing The project was conducted from May 2017 to October 2020. 2.3. Study contents - Researching on the plant diversity of Zingiber and Hedychium from north- central Vietnam. - Studying the bio-ecological characteristics and value using of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam. - Determinaing the content and chemical compositions of essential oils of some Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam. - Testing the antimicrobial and anti-mosquito larvae activities of essential oils of some Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam. 2.4. Study methods 2.4.1. Biological study methods: 2.4.1.1. Method of inheriting documents Inheriting the research results on natural and social conditions in the study area, plant samples stored in domestic and foreign museums, published studies relating to the PhD topic. 2.4.1.2. Field investigation method Based on the map and topographic conditions, the main survey lines were selected so that the lines must pass through the habitats of the study area. From the main line, the herringbone-styled sub-glands are opened in both directions and pass through different communities. On average, 1.5km of the main line has 2 sub-lines opened. Investigate species of two study genus located within 10m on each side of each transect. 2.4.1.3. Methods of sampling and classification Plant samples were collected and processed according to the method of Nguyễn Nghĩa Thìn (2007). 2.4.1.4. Methods to assess the diversity of flora Evaluating species diversity of genera according to the method of Nguyễn Nghĩa Thìn (2007). 2.4.1.5. Method of learning about the use value of flora Based on published documents and through interviews with the people. 2.4.2. Methods of identifying the chemical compositions of essential oils: 2.4.2.1. Sample collection and essential oil distillation
5 Samples for essential oil distillation included separate parts of the plant (leaves, stem, rhizomes, flowers, fruits). 0.5-3 kg fresh sample was collected. Samples were labeled with identified number (similar to species identified number) and the collected time. After collecting, samples were chopped and distilled by the method of attracting refluxed water in Clevenger equipment in 2 - 4 hours at standard pressure according to Vietnam Pharmacopoeia (2017). 2.4.2.2. Quantitative method of essential oils Essential oils of different parts were quantified according to the First method of Vietnam Pharmacopoeia V (2017). 2.4.2.3. Methods of chemical composition analysis of essential oils. Preparation of analytical samples for gas chromatography: Dissolving 1.5 mg of dried essential oil by anhydrous Na2SO4 in 1 ml of pure hexane for chromatographic analysis. + Gas chromatography (GC) with FID detector: Made on Agilent Technologies HP 6890N Plus with FID detector, capillary column HP-5MS length of 30 m, internal diameter (ID) = 0.25 mm, layer film 0.25mm thin with carrier gas is hydrogen. The temperature of the sample pump chamber is 250º C. Detect temperature is 260º C. Program temperature 60º C (2 minutes), increase 4º C/minute to 220º C, stop at this temperature for 10 minutes. + Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS): It is carried out on Agilent Technologies HP 6890N/HP 5973 MSD conjugated gas chromatography system with separation column and chromatographic operating conditions as mentioned above and with helium as carrier gas. The qualitative determination of essential oil components was done by the following methods: - Based on the values of the Retention Index, determinng with a sequence of n- alkanes in the same chromatographic condition. - Based on mass spectra, comparing with mass spectra found in data banks (NIST 08 and Wiley 9th Version) or comparing with the references. The percentage of components in essential oils were calculated based on the area or height of the chromatographic peak (detector FID) without using any adjustment factors. 2.4.3. Biological activity test methods 2.4.3.1. Testing the resistance to test microorganisms Antimicrobial activity of Zingiber and Hedychium essential oils was carried out on three Gram-negative organisms, Salmonella enterica (ATCC 13076), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), and Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922); three Gram-positive organisms, Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 299212), and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923); and the pathogenic yeast, Candida albicans (ATCC 10231), using the microbroth dilution assay (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 2009). The essential oil sample is diluted in DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide) in the
6 decreasing concentration range (µg / ml): 256-128-64-32-16-8-4-2. The antimicrobial assays were carried out in triplicate. Bacteria and fungi were standardized to 5 × 105 CFU/mL for bacteria and 1 × 103 CFU/mL for the yeast. After 24 hours of incubation at 37°C, the MIC value was determined by observation. The MIC value was determined at the well with the lowest reagent concentration that completely inhibited the growth of microorganisms after 24 hours of culture and accurately determined based on cell turbidity data by Bioteck spectrophotometer and Raw data software. The IC50 values were determined by the percentage of microorganisms that were inhibited for growth based on the BioTeK turbidity data from the BioTeK spectrometer and the Raw data computer software using the following equations: ODcontrol(-) - OD test agent % inhibition = x 100% ODcontrol(-) - OD control(+) (Highinh% - 50%) x (Highconc - Lowconc) IC50 = High conc - (Highinh% - Lowinh% ) Comment: % inhibition: inhibitory concentration; OD: optical density; Control (-): cells with medium but no antimicrobial agent; , test agent is a known concentration of antimicrobial agent; Control (+): culture medium without cells; Highconc/Lowconc: concentration of test agent at high concentration/low concentration; Highinh% / Lowinh%: % %inhibition at high concentration/% inhibition at low concentration. 2.4.3.2. Test of mosquito larvicidal resistance Mosquito larva resistance activity was determined by Reed-Muench method. Adult mosquitoes: Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus were maintained in insect cages (40 x 40 x 40 cm) and fed by 10% of sugar solution and rat blood. Hatching eggs were spread out by tap water. Aedes albopictus larvae were kept on plastic trays (24 × 35 × 5 cm). Their larvae were fed by dog biscuits and yeast flour at a ratio of 3: 1. All steps were held at 25 ± 2°C, 65 - 75% relative humidity, and a dark cycle of 12 : 12 at the Research Center for entomology and parasites, Duy Tan University. The anti-mosquito larva activity of rhizomes essential oils of Zingiber and Hedychium species was evaluated according to WHO protocol (2005) with minor changes. For the assay, the essential oil fraction was dissolved in EtOH (1% stock solution) was placed in a 200 ml beaker and was added water containing 20 larvae (fourth instar). For each test, a controller using EtOH was also run for comparison. Mortality rates were recorded after 24 hours and after 48 hours of exposure while not supplemented with nutrients. The experiments were carried out at 25 ± 2° C. Each test was replicated four times in every concentrations (70, 60, 50, 40, 30 and 25 μg/mL). The average lethal concentration (LC50) was determined by the Reed-Muench method. 2.4.4. Data analysis: Data were analyzed on Microsoft Office Excel 2016 software.
7 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1. Some biological characteristics of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam 3.1.1. Morphological characteristics of Zingiber and Hedychium from north- central Vietnam 3.1.1.1. Morphological characteristics of Zingiber Boehm. Herbs perennial; pseudostems formed by leaf sheaths, up to 3 m; rhizomes branched, tuberous, aromatic, lying horizontally below the ground. Leaves: spacing, distichous, held in plane parallel to rhizome; petiole absent or very short, swollen, cushionlike; leaf blade oblong, lanceolate, or linear. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes on peduncle clothed with scalelike sheaths, rarely breaking through leaf sheaths without peduncle; bracts closely imbricate, rarely without roofing (Zingiber castaneum), green or other color, 1-flowered, persistent; bracteole not tubular. Calyx: tubular, split on 1 side, apex 3-toothed. Corolla proximally tubular, distally 3-lobed, central lobe white or cream, usually wider than lateral lobes. Lateral staminodes adnate to labellum, forming a 3-lobed labellum; central lobe retuse or cleft at apex. Filament short; connective with elongate appendage wrapped around style; anther 2 cells, parallel. Ovary 3-loculed. Fruit a capsule. Seeds black, covered by aril; aril white, margin irregularly lacerate. 3.1.1.2. Morphological characteristics of Hedychium Koen. Herbs perennial; pseudostems 1-2 m, rarely more than 3 m; rhizomes thick, fleshy. Leaves: distichous, held in plane parallel to rhizome; ligule conspicuous, petiole absent or very short, leaf blade usually oblong or lanceolate. Inflorescences: breaking through leaf sheaths without peduncle; bracts imbricate, rarely lax (Hedychium stenopetalum), 1- or more flowered; bracteoles tubular. Calyx tubular, usually split on 1 side, apex truncate or 3-toothed. Corolla tube long, slender; lobes reflexed at anthesis, linear. Lateral staminodes petaloid, larger than corolla lobes. Labellum suborbicular, large, apex usually 2-cleft; claw long or short. Filament usually long, 2-cell anther, connective appendage absent. Ovary 3-loculed. Capsule globose, 3-valved. Seeds numerous; aril lacerate. 3.1.2. Ecological characteristics, distribution of Zingiber and Hedychium from north-central Vietnam 3.1.2.1. Ecological characteristics, distribution of Zingiber Boehm. Habitat: grows in primary forest, secondary forest; under the canopy of humid forests, wet humus, along streams, moist limestone mountain cavities, planted in gardens. Usually at 100-900 m, rarely less than 100 m (Zingiber mekongense) or less than 300 m (Zingiber collinsii, Zingiber cornubracteatum). Phenology: Flowering usually begins in spring (Mar-May), rarely in summer (Zingiber montanum, July) or autumn (Zingiber cornubracteatum, Sep). Flowering time lasts from 2-9 months, 2 months: Zingiber vuquangense (Apr-May), Zingiber montanum (July-Aug); 3 months: Zingiber castaneum (May-July), Zingiber nitens (May-July), Zingiber cornubracteatum (Sep-Nov); 4 months: Zingiber castaneum
8 (Apr-July), Zingiber officinale (May-Aug), Zingiber zerumbet (May-Aug); 6 months: Zingiber nudicarpum (Apr-Sep), Zingiber collinsii (May-Oct), Zingiber ottensii (May- Oct); 9 months: Zingiber mekongense and Zingiber neotruncatum (Apr-Dec). Fruit season: after flowering 1-2 months; from May to Mar next year: Zingiber neotruncatum; Jun-Sep: Zingiber vuquangense; Jun-Nov: Zingiber castaneum, Zingiber nitens; Jun-Feb next year: Zingiber mekongense; Oct-Dec: Zingiber cornubracteatum; Oct-Jan of next year: Zingiber zerumbet. 3.1.2.2. Ecological characteristics, distribution of Hedychium Koen. Habitat: grows in primary forest, secondary forest; wet humus, wet soil, along streams, under thin forest canopy, humus-covered rock recesses, planted in gardens; prefer less (Hedychium coronarium) or more shade (Hedychium stenopetalum, Hedychium gardnerianum), Hedychium flavum prefers less shade to light shade. Phenology: Flowering usually begins in summer (July-Aug), rarely winter (Hedychium villosum, Feb). The flowering period lasts for 2-6 months; 2 months: Hedychium stenopetalum (July-Aug); 3 months: Hedychium villosum (Feb-Apr), Hedychium flavum (Aug-Oct), Hedychium gardnerianum (Aug-Oct); 6 months: Hedychium coronarium (July-Dec). Fruit season: 1-2 months after flowering; from April-June: Hedychium villosum; Oct-Dec: Hedychium flavum, Hedychium stenopetalum, Hedychium gardnerianum; Sept-Feb next year: Hedychium coronarium. 3.1.3. Diversity of Zingiber and Hedychium from north-central Vietnam Twenty-four species have been identified in north-central Vietnam. Including a new species for science Zingiber vuquangense N.S.Lý, T.H.Lê, T.H.Trịnh, V.H.Nguyễn & N.Đ.Đỗ and two new record for the flora of Vietnam, namely Zingiber mekongense Gagnep. and Zingiber cornubracteatum Triboun. (Table 3.1) Table 3.1. List of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam Vietnam TT Latin name Using Diversity name 1 Zingiber acuminatum Val.* Gừng lá nhọn CTD II Gừng 2 Zingiber eberhardtii Gagnep.* CTD I, II eberhardt Zingiber castaneum Škorničk. & 3 Gừng trung bộ CTD I-III Q.B. Nguyễn 4 Zingiber cochinchinensis Gagnep.* Gừng nam bộ CTD V 5 Zingiber collinsii Mood &Theilade Gừng collin THU, CTD II, VI 6 Zingiber cornubracteatum Triboun Gừng lá bắc cựa CTD I, II, IV 7 Zingiber gramineum Norohan* Gừng lúa THU, CTD I, II, VI 8 Zingiber laoticum Gagnep.* Gừng lào THU, CTD IV 9 Zingiber mekongense Gagnep. Gừng mê kông THU, CTD I, II Zingiber montanum (J.Koenig) Link 10 Gừng núi THU, CTD I-VI ex A.Dietr. Zingiber neotruncatum T.L. Wu, K. Gừng nhọn đầu 11 CTD II Larsen & Turland mới
9 Vietnam TT Latin name Using Diversity name Gừng lá sáng 12 Zingiber nitens M. F. Newman THU, CTD II, III bóng AND, 13 Zingiber nudicarpum D. Fang Gừng quả trần II, IV, VI CTD THU, CTD, 14 Zingiber officinale Rosc. Gừng I-VI GVI, AND 15 Zingiber ottensii Valeton Gừng ottensi THU, CTD II, VI THU, 16 Zingiber rubens Roxb.* Gừng đỏ CTD, I, II AND 17 Zingiber rufopilosum Gagnep.* Gừng lông hung CTD, THU I, II Zingiber vuquangense N.S.Lý, 18 T.H.Lê, T.H.Trịnh, V.H.Nguyễn & Gừng vũ quang THU, CTD I-IV N.Đ.Đỗ THU, 19 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith Gừng gió I-VI CTD, GVI THU, CTD, 20 Hedychium coronarium Koenig Bạch điệp I-VI AND, CAN, GVI CAN, 21 Hedychium flavum Roxb. Ngải tiên vàng II CTD, GVI Ngải tiên 22 Hedychium gardnerianum Rosc. CTD, CAN II gadner CTD, Ngải tiên cánh 23 Hedychium stenopetalum Lodd. CAN, I-IV, VI hoa đẹp THU 24 Hedychium villosum Wall. Ngải tiên lông CTD, THU II Comment: * Species inherited from the document in north-central Vietnam. Using: THU: Medicinal plants, CTD: essential oil plants, AND: Edible plants, GVI: spice plants, CAN: ornamental plants. Distribution: I: Thanh Hoa; II: Nghe An; III: Ha Tinh; IV: Quang Binh; V: Quang Tri; VI: Thua Thien - Hue. Zingiber species in north-central Vietnam is quite diverse, with 19/35 species accounting for 54,29% of the total species of Vietnam; meanwhile, Hedychium species is less diverse, with 5/12 species, accounting for 41,67%. 3.1.4. Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam were recorded with additional distribution zones Seven species have been recorded with additional distribution zones for the north- central Vietnam Flora, namely: Zingiber castaneum, Zingiber collinsii, Zingiber montanum, Hedychium coronarium, Hedychium flavum, Hedychium stenopetalum and
10 Hedychium villosum; two new record for the flora of Vietnam are Zingiber cornubracteatum and Zingiber mekongense; and a new species is the Zingiber vuquangense. 3.1.5. Using values of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam There are different uses for 5 groups: essential oil plants accounted for the largest proportion with 24 species, accounting for 100%; followed by the medicinal plants consisted of 15 species, accounting for 62.5%; edible plants also consisted of 5 species, accounting for 20.8%; both spice and ornamental plants consisted of 4 species, accounting for 16.7% each. 3.1.6. Characteristics of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam 3.1.6.1. Zingiber species 1. Zingiber castaneum Škorničk. & Q.B.Nguyễn Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 1 m. Leaves sessile; leaf blade elliptic, 20-25 × 7-8 cm. Inflorescences breaking through leaf sheaths, 7-10 cm; bracts green (yellow in maturity), glossy, sparse; bracteole ovate, 1,0-1,2 × 0,8-0,9 cm. Calyx entire, 0.9-1.1 cm. Corolla tube 2.9 cm; lobes triangular, 1.8-2.2 × 1.1-1.3 cm. Labellum ovate, 1.7-2.1 × 1.2-1.4 cm, purple with pale yellow stripes from base to 1/3, edge white spots; lateral staminodes 1.0-1.1 × 0.2-0.3 cm, yellow, connate to labellum by basal. Filament 0.2-0.3 cm; anther 1.5-1.6 cm; connective appendage purple, 0.8-0.9 cm. Ovary cylindrical, glabrous. Capsule heart, glabrous. Seeds reddish-brown. Fl. May-July, fr. Jun-Nov. 2. Zingiber collinsii Mood &Theilade Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 1-2 m. Leaf blade elliptic, 35-42 × 5.8- 7.5 cm; underneath pale purple and pubescent. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes, 12-15 × 4.5-4.8 cm; bracts ovate, 3.6-3.8 × 3.0-3.2 cm, orange-red or burgundy, hairy. Calyx 2.0-2.2 × 0.7-0.8 cm. Corolla tube 4.0-4.2 cm; lobes 2.1-2.6 × 0.7-0.8 cm. Labellum ovate, 2.4-2.6 × 1.8-2.0 cm, cream-yellow with purple stripes from center to apex. Lateral staminodes obovate, 1.7-1.8 × 0.8-0.9 cm, connate to labellum by basal ½. Filament very short; anther 1.1-1.2; connective appendage 1.0-1.1 cm, purple. Ovary 0.5-0.6 × 0.5 cm, hairy. Fl. May-Oct. 3. Zingiber cornubracteatum Triboun & K. Larsen Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 3 m high. Leaf blade ovate- oblong to elliptic, 40-45 × 10-18 cm; underneath brown pubescent; petiole 2-2.5 cm. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts obovate, 5.0-10.0 × 3.0 cm, apex concave inward, pale pink; bracteoles oblong, 3.0-4.0 × 0.8-1.0 cm, hairy. Calyx 2.0-2.5 cm, hairy. Corolla tube ca. 5.0 cm, hairy; lobes elliptic, red. Labellum obovate, 2.5 × 1.2- 1.8 cm, base cream-yellow, red; lateral staminodes 1.8-2.0 × 0.22-0.25 cm, cream- yellow, connate to labellum by apical 2/3. Filament ca. 0.3-0.4 cm; anther 1.5 × 0.5 cm; connective appendage ca. 1.5 cm. Capsule obovate or oval, 2.5-3.0 × 2.0-2.5 cm, pale-pink. Seeds pale red to reddish-brown. Fl. Sep-Nov, fr. Oct-Dec.
11 4. Zingiber mekongense Gagnep. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 1.5 m. Leaf blade elliptic-oblong to obovate-oblong, 35-62 × 5,5-12 cm; underneath white ensely pubescent. Inflorescences arising from base of pseudostems, peduncle usually fully embedded in ground; bracts ovate, 3.5-4.1 × 0.5-1.8 cm, white or pink-white, apex red, brown slightly hairy; bracteoles ovate, 3.5-3.8 × 0.5-0.8 cm, slightly hairy. Calyx split on 1 side, apex 3-toothed; 2.1-2.5 × 0.5-0.6 cm; slightly hairy. Apex corolla tube pubescent; lobes ovate, red or cream yellow, base and apex lightly hairy. Labellum obovate, 2.2- 2.6 × 1.5-2.2 cm, base cream-white, purple with yellow spots; lateral staminodes 1.5- 2.2 × 0.5-1.0 cm, connective to the labellum by basal 1/3. Filament so short, lightly hairy; connective appendage is as long as the anther, 1,2-1,5 cm, pale-purple. Ovary ensely pubescent. Mature capsules 3.5-5.0 × 1.3-1.5 cm, purple-red, upper half lightly hairy. Seeds red, 0.4-0.5 × 0.3-0.4 cm. Fl. Apr-Dec, fr. Jun-Feb. 5. Zingiber montanum (J.Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 1-2 m. Leaf blade lanceolate-oblong, 19-30 (-40) × 2.5-5 (-8) cm; underneath slightly hairy. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts obovate, 3.5-4 × 2.4-2.6 cm, light reddish brown, darker on upper half, white pubescent. Calyx ca. 1.3-1.5 cm, split on 1 side, apex 3-toothed. Corolla tube 2.4-2.6 cm; lobes ovate, cream yellow. Labellum 1.8-2 × 1.5-1.7 cm, pale yellow, apex emarginate 0.2-0.3 cm; lateral staminodes elliptic, connective to the labellum by basal ½. Filament ca. 0.1 cm; anther 0.8-0.9 cm; connective appendage 0.6-0.7 cm. Ovary elliptic, 0.4-0.5 × 0.25-0.3 cm, white hairy. Fl. July-Aug. 6. Zingiber neotruncatum T.L. Wu, K. Larsen & Turland Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 0.7-1.8 m, hairy. Petiole hairy; leaf blade lanceolate-oblong, 30-45 × 3.5-5.8 cm, pubescent along below ribs. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts ovate, 3–4 × 2.5–3.5 cm, green; bracteoles ovate-oblong, 2.7-2.8 × 1.9-2.2 cm, white, margin pubescent. Flowers white. Calyx ca. 2.5 cm, apex 2-toothed. Corolla tube ca. 4.3 cm, pale-yellow, hairy inside; lobes ca. 2.5 × 0.8-1.5 cm. Labellum obovate, ca. 3.5 × 2.4 cm, apex emarginate; lateral staminodes obovate, apex rounded, entire connate to labellum. Filament white, ca. 2 mm; anther pale-yellow; connective appendage ca. 1.3 cm. Ovary cylindrical, 0,5 × 0,4 cm. Mature capsules ovate, pale-orange. Fl. Apr -Dec, fr. May-Mar. 7. Zingiber nitens M. F. Newman Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 1.5m high. Leaf blade elliptic- oblong, 18-25 × 2-3 cm; underneath slightly hairy, thicker along below midrib. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts ovate, dark green, 3.3 × 3.5 cm, 3-4 flowered. Calyx split on 1 side to ½ long, apex 3-toothed. Corolla tube ca. 3.0-3.1 cm; lobes nearly triangular, 1.8-2.1 × 0.5-0.6 cm, pale yellow. Labellum elliptic, 1.8 × 1.1- 1.25 cm, dark purple with yellow stripes from base, edge pale yellow spots (viền có chấm vàng); lateral staminodes connective to the labellum by basal ¼, 0.7-0.9 × 0.15- 0.25 cm. Filament 0.25-0.3 × 0.3 cm; connective appendage is as long as anther, dark purple. Ovary cylindrical, 0.35 × 0.25 cm, cream yellow. Capsule triangular, white,
12 apex green. Seeds black. Fl. May-July, fr. Jun-Nov. 8. Zingiber nudicarpum D. Fang Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 2.8 m. Leaf blade elliptic-oblong, 30-45 × 7.0-9.5 cm, underneath white slightly hairy. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts ovate to elliptic, 5.5-6.2 × 3.0-5.3 cm, red or pink, hairy; bracteoles ovate-oblong, ca. 3.2-3.5 cm, slightly hairy. Calyx ca. 3.5-3.8 cm, apex slightly 2- toothed. Corolla tube ca. 4.5-5.7 cm; lobes ovate, cream-yellow, center one ca. 3.5-4.1 cm, lateral ones ca. 2.6-3.2 cm. Labellum triangular, ca. 3.0-3.5 × 1.5-1.8 cm, cream- yellow with purple dotted, apex emarginate; lateral staminodes connective to the labellum by basal ½, ca. 2.6-2.8 cm. Stamen ca. 2.4-2.9 cm; connective appendage shorter than anther, purple. Ovary white, ca. 0,5-0,8 × 0,5 cm, slightly hairy. Capsule white when young, ca. 1,4-1,6 × 0,8-1,3. Fl. Apr-Sep. 9. Zingiber officinale Rosc. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 40-50 cm. Leaf blade lanceolate- oblong, 15-30 × 1.5-2.5 cm. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes. Bracts pale green, 2.2-2.5 × 1.2-1.8 cm; bracteoles equaling bracts. Calyx ca. 0.7-0.9 cm. Corolla tube ca. 2.2-2.5 cm; lobes ca. 1.6-1.8 × 7-8 mm. Labellum nearly rounded, ca. 1-1,2 cm, red- brown to purple-brown with red speckle, base cream stripes; lateral staminodes ca. 5- 6 × 3-4 mm, free nearly to base. Anther ca. 7-9 mm; connective appendage dark red, ca. 6-7 mm. Ovary glabrous, 2-3 mm. Fl. May-Aug. 10. Zingiber ottensii Valeton Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 2 m. The leaf blade lanceolate- oblong, 36-43 × 6-7.5 cm, underside slightly purple and pilous. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts obovate, red, ca. 3.6-3.8 × 3.0-3.2 cm, hairy; bracteoles white, apex pale pink, ca. 3.1-3.3 cm. Calyx ca. 2.0-2.2 × 0.7-0.8 cm. Corolla tube ca. 4.0-4.2 cm; lobes ovate, ca. 2.1-2.2 × 0.7-0.9 cm. Labellum obovate, ca. 2.4-2.6 × 1.8-2.0 cm, pale yellow with pale pink stripe, apex rounded with a short cleft; lateral staminodes obovate, ca. 1.7-1.8 × 0.8-0.9 cm, connective to the labellum by basal 2/3. Stamen sessile; anther ca. 1.1-1.2 cm; connective appendage 1.0-1.1 cm. Ovaries triangular- oblong, sparely villose. Fl. May-Oct. 11. Zingiber vuquangense N.S.Lý, T.H.Lê, T.H.Trinh, V.H.Nguyễn & N.Đ.Đỗ Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 3 m. Leaf blade broadly elliptic to elliptic–ovate, 26-50.8 × 9-14.7 cm, margin scattered hairs near the base. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes, peduncle usually fully embedded in ground; bracts oblong, 3.5–4.3 × 1.1–1.3 cm, shorter than bracteoles, brown-red at upper 1/3, pale yellow towards base, sparse hairs at base, densely pubescent distally, apex rounded, margin slightly serrate, ciliate. Calyx ca. 1.65-1.75 cm, split on 1 side, apex 2-toothed. Corolla tube ca. 3.7-3.9 cm, hairy; lobes triangular to ovate, center one 4.3- 4.5 × 0.9-1.0 cm, lateral ones 3.6-3.7 × 0.6-0.75 cm. Labellum obovate, 3.8-4.1 × 1.8- 2.0 cm, base pale yellow, pink-purple with small pale-yellow spots; lateral staminodes obovate to oblong, 2.0-2.2 × 0.8-1.1 cm, connate to labellum by apical ¾. Filament ca. 0.25-0.3 cm; connective appendage is as long as the anther, ca. 1.5-1.7 cm, pink-purple
13 or yellow. Ovary cylindrical, 7–7.5 × 3–3.5 mm, hairy. Mature capsules sessile or pedicel 2 mm long, somewhat trigonous ovoid, 3.2–4 × 1.2–1.9 cm, light purple. Seeds irregular obovoid, 4–5 × 3.5–4 cm, pink-red. Fl. Apr-May, fr. Jun-Sep. 12. Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 1.30 m. Leaves closely imbricate; leaf blade lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, 22-23 × 6-8 cm, underneath pilose. Inflorescences arising from rhizomes; bracts closely imbricate, green when young, red when old, obovate, 3,2-3,4 × 2,4-2,6 cm, slightly hairy; bracteoles white, ovate, ca. 2.4- 2.5 cm. Calyx 1.7–1.9 cm, split on 1 side, apex 3-toothed. Corolla tube ca. 3.2 cm; lobes ovate, pale yellow, 1.4-1.9 × 0.3-0.8 cm. Labellum nearly rounded, ca. 1.7 × 1.7 cm, base white, apex pale-yellow and 2-toothed, margin wrinkled; lateral staminodes connective to the labellum by basal ¾, 0.5-0.7 × 0.2-0.3 cm. Filament very short, anther ca. 1.1-1.3 cm; connective appendage ca. 0.9-1.0 cm. Ovary ca. 0.3-0.4 × 0.2-0.3 cm. Capsule elliptic. Seeds black. Fl. May-July (Aut), fr. Oct-Jan. 3.1.6.2. Hedychium species 1. Hedychium coronarium Koenig Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 1.5-2 m. Leaf blade lanceolate, 40-45 × 5.5-7 cm; underneath white slightly hairy, easy fallen. Inflorescences macelike; bracts green, 4 - 4.5 x 2.5 - 4 cm, arranged roofing, 4-5 flowered; bracteoles tubular, membranous. Flowers white, fragrant. Calyx ca. 2.7-4 cm; split on 1 side, apex 3- dent, edge hairy. Corolla tube 7-8 cm; lobes linear, ca. 4-5 cm, center one spoonlike, apex hooded. Labellum obheart, 4-6 × 4-6 cm, apex incised to the middle, butterflylike; lateral staminodes linear, apex incised slightly V-shaped. Filament 2.8-3 cm; anther 1.2-1.5 cm, pale red-yellow, created an obtuse angle with filament. Ovary pubescent. Capsule narrowly ovate, 2-3 × 1.2-1.5 cm. Seeds sub-globose; aril red, lacerate. Fl. July-Dec, fr. Sep-Feb. 2. Hedychium flavum Roxb. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 1.4-1.6 m. Leaf blade narrowly elliptic oblong, 30-45 × 8-12 cm, glabrous. Inflorescences oval, flowers numerous; bracts ovate oblong, 4-6 × 1.5-3 cm, green, roofed when young, slightly detached when flowers bloom, 3-5 flowered. Calyx split on 1 side, hairy. Corolla tube 7-8 cm; lobes linear, yellow. Labellum wide obovate or obheart, 3-4 cm, bright yellow, darker at base to middle, base attenuate into a claw, apex divided 2 lobes; lateral staminodes oblanceolate, yellowish. Filament 2.8-3.2 cm, orange-yellow; anther 1.2-1.5 cm, created an obtuse or nearly square angle with filament. Ovary cylindrical, 1.5-2 mm, hairy. Capsule, ellipsoid. Fl. Aug-Oct, fr. Oct-Dec. 3. Hedychium gardnerianum Rosc. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 0.8-1 m. Leaf blade lanceolate to lanceolate-oblong, 20-45 (-55) × 10-15 cm. Inflorescence 35-45 cm long; bracts lax, oval-oblong, 3-5 cm; bracteoles shorter than bracts. Flowers yellow. Calyx 3-3.5 cm, split on 1 side, apex 3-toothed, hairy externally. Corolla tube longer than bracts, glabrous; lobes linear, 3.5-4.5 cm, involute. Labellum wedgelike, 2.5-3 cm, yellow,
14 apex split 2-lobed; lateral staminodes oblanceolate, 2.5-3 × 1.2-1.5 cm. Filament up to 6 cm long, purple, slender; anther slightly involute, 0.8-0.9 cm. Ovary 0.2-0.3 cm, glabrous. Fl. Aug-Oct, fr. Oct-Dec. 4. Hedychium stenopetalum Lodd. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems 1-1.5 m. Leaf blade oblong, 45-70 × 6- 14 cm, underneath long pubescent. Inflorescence 20-35 cm long; bracts oblique, lax, oval-oblong, 5-6.5 × 1.3-1.5 cm, green, 3-5 flowered; bracteoles shorter than bracts. Flower white tinged yellow at base, fragrant. Calyx 3.2-3.5 cm; apex acute to 3-lobed; pubescent. Corolla tube 4-4.5 cm; lobes linear, 2.8-3 cm. Labellum obovate, 1.8-2 × 2 cm, white, base yellow-green, apex split 2-lobed, acute; lateral staminodes lanceolate- oblong to linear, 1.8-2 cm. Filament 4.5-5 cm; anther linear, 0.7-0.9 cm, slightly involute. Ovary oval, 0.2-0.3 cm. Fl. July-Aug, fr. Oct-Dec. 5. Hedychium villosum Wall. Description: Perennial herb, pseudostems up to 2 m. Leaf blade elipptic-oblong, 20-35 × 3.5-6 cm. Inflorescences 15-25 cm; bracts oblique, elipptic-oblong, 1.5-2.5 × 0.7-0.8 cm, brown pubescent, 2-3 flowered; bracteoles equal to about 1/3 of the bracts, pubescent. Flowers white with pale yellow blotch on lip, fragrant. Calyx membranous, 2.2-2.5 cm, 3-toothed, deeply split in one side, hairy. Corolla tube 3.2-3.5 cm, pubescent; lobes 1.4-2.5 cm, involute. Labellum ovate-elliptic oblong, 2.5-3 × 1.5-2 cm, base attenuate into a claw, apex incised to 1/3; lateral staminodes spathulate, oblanceolate. Filament 4.5-5 cm, red; anther sagittate. Ovary long pubescent. Fl. Feb- Apr, fr. Apr-Jun. 3.2. Chemical compositions of essential oils of Zingiber and Hedychium species from north-central Vietnam 3.2.1. Essential oils of Zingiber species The constituents of the thirty-five essential oils isolated from 10 species Zingiber were identified and quantified. Four species were first studied: Zingiber castaneum, Zingiber cornubracteatum, Zingiber mekongense and Zingiber vuquangense. Essential oils are slightly yellow, lighter than water, fragrance. Over two-hundred compounds in essential oil Zingiber, each with 17-114 compounds, accounting for 74.0-99.8% of essential oils, which are compiled in Table 3.18 and 3.19. Table 3.18 The main ingredients of Zingiber essential oils from north-central Vietnam Mono-sesquiterpenoids identified substances Mono-sesquiterpenes Concentration of hydrocacbones Monoterpene Total substances Monoterpenes sesquiterpenes Sesquiterpene monoterpenes hydrocarbons Sesqterpenes Oxygenated Oxygenated identified Sample TT Species (%) 1 Zingiber 473L 41 95,4 49,2 0,1 41,1 4,6 90,3 4,7 49,3 45,7 2 castaneum 473S 40 99,8 9,0 1,6 73,0 16,8 82,0 18,4 10,6 89,8
15 Mono-sesquiterpenoids identified substances Mono-sesquiterpenes Concentration of hydrocacbones Monoterpene Total substances Monoterpenes sesquiterpenes Sesquiterpene monoterpenes hydrocarbons Sesqterpenes Oxygenated Oxygenated identified Sample TT Species (%) 3 473R 36 96,9 54,0 34,0 5,8 2,8 59,8 36,8 88,0 8,6 4 473F 34 98,3 5,7 8,5 35,7 30,8 41,4 39,3 14,2 66,5 5 741L 40 96,8 23,5 0,4 64,9 8,0 88,4 8,4 23,9 72,9 6 741S 45 94,1 10,1 0,8 66,2 16,5 76,3 17,3 10,9 82,7 7 741R 33 98,3 77,4 14,4 3,9 2,6 81,3 17,0 91,8 6,5 8 Zingiber 748L 35 98,1 49,0 1,8 36,3 7,6 85,3 9,4 50,8 43,9 9 collinsii 748R 51 97,7 58,3 10,9 7,4 21,1 65,7 32,0 69,2 28,5 10 830L 51 98,5 29,1 0 57,2 9,9 86,3 9,9 29,1 67,1 11 830R 47 96,1 49,3 30,8 4,0 10,1 53,3 40,9 80,1 14,1 Zingiber 12 832L 31 95,7 81,9 0,5 11,8 1,1 93,7 1,6 82,4 12,9 cornubrateatum 13 832S 36 98,2 81,2 0,5 13,7 1,9 94,9 2,4 81,7 15,6 14 832R 43 95,1 75,1 8,6 2,9 4,7 80,7 12,8 86,6 6,9 15 730L 31 98,1 60,4 0,0 32,7 4,1 93,1 4,1 60,4 36,8 16 Zingiber 730S 44 87,0 19,8 0,7 54,1 10,2 73,9 10,9 20,5 64,3 17 mekongense 730R 43 89,9 30,1 0,9 39,5 16,1 69,6 17,0 31,0 55,6 18 730F 46 87,0 17,8 0,8 53,9 10,7 71,7 11,5 18,6 64,6 19 Zingiber 734L 44 74,0 43,4 9,4 8,3 8,4 51,7 17,8 52,8 16,7 20 montanum 734R 26 84,5 56,2 26,3 0,9 0,0 57,1 26,3 82,5 0,9 21 Zingiber 750L 43 98,9 59,0 0,2 36,3 3,3 95,3 3,5 59,2 39,6 22 nitens 750R 17 96,7 10,2 86,5 0,0 0,0 10,2 86,5 96,7 0,0 23 760L 45 93,8 50,3 3,8 32,9 6,6 83,2 10,4 54,1 39,5 24 760S 37 94,4 0,5 12,0 65,1 13,9 65,6 25,9 12,5 79,0 25 Zingiber 760R 33 92,1 84,8 1,7 4,0 1,6 88,8 3,3 86,5 5,6 26 nudicarpum 777L 99 98,4 39,4 2,0 41,4 11,6 80,8 13,6 41,4 53,0 27 777S 114 99,2 29,6 34,8 20,0 14,0 49,6 48,8 64,4 34,0 28 777R 88 99,5 23,9 25,3 28,5 21,3 52,4 46,6 49,2 49,8 29 Zingiber 772L 32 89,4 25,3 0 60,5 2,6 85,8 2,6 25,3 63,1 30 ottensii 772R 38 99,7 54,1 24,8 4,8 15,9 58,9 40,7 78,9 20,7 31 472L 46 91,5 39,5 4,1 34,3 9,2 73,8 13,3 43,6 43,5 32 Zingiber 472S 31 94,4 47,4 5,4 30,0 11,6 77,4 17,0 52,8 41,6 33 vuquangense 472R 38 95,0 22,0 24,7 19,1 22,6 41,1 47,3 46,7 41,7 34 472F 42 93,9 39,8 27,0 22,4 3,4 62,2 30,4 66,8 25,8 35 Zingiber 704R 31 94,6 24,9 17,7 8,3 43,7 33,2 61,4 42,6 52,0 zerumbet Maximum value 114 99,8 84,8 86,5 73,0 43,7 95,3 86,5 96,7 89,8
16 Mono-sesquiterpenoids identified substances Mono-sesquiterpenes Concentration of hydrocacbones Monoterpene Total substances Monoterpenes sesquiterpenes Sesquiterpene monoterpenes hydrocarbons Sesqterpenes Oxygenated Oxygenated identified Sample TT Species (%) Smallest value 17 74,0 0,5 0,0 0,0 0,0 10,2 1,6 10,6 0,0 Average value 43,7 94,6 40,9 12,0 29,2 10,6 70,1 22,6 53,0 39,7 Comment: L: leaves; S: pseudostems; R: rhizomes; F: fruits Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes constitute the main compounds in most of Zingiber essential oils. Monoterpenes accounted for from 10.6% (pseudostems oil of Zingiber castaneum in Pu Huong Nature Reserve) to 96.7% (rhizome oil of Zingiber nitens), averaging 53.0%. Sesquiterpenes accounted for from 0% (rhizome oil of Zingiber nitens) to 89.8% (pseudostems oil of Zingiber castaneum in Pu Huong Nature Reserve), averaging 39.7%. Hydrocarbon compounds (Mono-sesquiterpenes) often accounts for a higher part, accounting for 10.2 - 95.3%, averaging 70.1%; oxygenated compounds (Mono- sesquiterpenoids) accounted for 1.6 - 86.5%, averaging 22.6%. Three essential oils had higher oxygenated than hydrocarbon compounds: rhizome of Zingiber nitens, rhizome of Zingiber vuquangense and rhizome of Zingiber zerumbet. In addition, some essential oils had high oxygenated compounds such as rhizomes and fruits of Zingiber castaneum in Vu Quang (36.8-39.3%), rhizomes of Zingiber collinsii (32.0 %), rhizomes of Zingiber cornubracteatum in Pu Mat National Park (40.9%), rhizomes of Zingiber montanum (26.3%), pseudostems of Zingiber nudicarpum in Bach Ma (25.9%), pseudostems and rhisomes of Zingiber nudicarpum species in the South East (48.8-46.6%), rhizome of Zingiber ottensii (40.7%), fruit of Zingiber vuquangense (30.4%). Table 0.18. The major components in Zingiber essential oils from north-central Vietnam TT Species Sample The main ingredient of essential oils β-Pinene (30,6%), α-pinene (9,5%), β-caryophyllene 1 473L (9,4%), bicycloelemene (9,1%), bicyclogermacrene (7,7%) và germacrene D (6,5%). β-Caryophyllene (14,7%), δ-cadinene (9,8%), bicycloelemene (8,4%), α-cubebene (7,8%), trans-α- Zingiber bergamotene (6,1%), γ-elemene (6,1%) và β-selinene 2 castaneum 473S (6,0%), zerumbone (5,2%), β-pinene (4,9), bicyclogermacrene (4,3%), α-cedrol (3,5%) và α- humulene (3,2%). Camphene (15,1%), 1,8-cineole (13,6%), linalool 3 473R (11,3%), δ3-carene (8,5%) và α-pinene (7,8%).
17 TT Species Sample The main ingredient of essential oils (E)-Nerolidol (23,2%), (Z)-9-octadecenamide (17,3%) 4 473F và β-caryophyllene (10,8%). Bicyclogermacrene (24,8%), germacrene D (12,9%), 5 741L cis-β-elemene (11,2%), β-pinene (10,3%), α-pinene (9,6%) và δ-elemene (6,5%). Bicyclogermacrene (15,8%), cis-β-elemene (9,8%), 6 741S germacrene D (9,2%), α-humulen (7,5%), δ-Elemene (5,4%) và α-zingiberene (4,6%). Sabinen (22,9%), camphen (21,2%), α-pinene (7,8%), β- 7 741R pinene (6,5%), bornyl acetate (6,1%), γ-Terpinene (5,5%) và terpinene-4-ol (4,0%). α-Pinene (25,6%), β-caryophyllene (16,8%), β-pinene 8 748L (16,1%), bicyclogermacrene (6,9%) và cis-α-elemene Zingiber (4,9%). collinsii Camphene (22,6%), β-pinene (16,3%), α-pinene (9,0%), 9 748R humulene oxide II (9,0%), bornyl acetate (5,2%), limonene (4,1%) và caryophyllene oxide (3,2%). Bicyclogermacrene (18,9%), β-pinene (18,8%), β- 10 830L caryophyllene (13,9%) và germacrene D (13,7%). Linalool (11,6%), β-pinene (8,8%), (E)-nerolidol (8,4%), α-pinene (8,2%), bornyl acetate (7,9%), myrcene 11 830R (7,7%), 1,8-cineol (6,1%), δ-3-carene (5,3%) và Zingiber limonene (5,1%). cornubrateatum β-Pinene (67,3%), α-pinene (10,1%), cis-β-elemene 12 832L (3,9%) và bicyclogermacrene (2,7%). β-Pinene (66,8%), α-pinene (9,9%), cis-β-elemene 13 832S (4,4%) và bicyclogermacrene (3,0%). 14 832R β-Pinene (33,1%), sabinene (11,9%) và α-pinene (9,8%). β-Pinene (43,1%), cis-β-elemene (13,6%), α-pinene 15 730L (12,9%), β-caryophyllene (9,2%) và α-humulene (4,8%). cis-β-Elemene (22,6%), β-caryophyllene (17,2%), β- 16 730S pinene (13,7%), α-humulene (5,2%), α-pinene (3,9%) và Zingiber (E)-nerolidol (3,9%). mekongense β-Pinene (19,5%), cis-β-elemene (11,8%), β- 17 730R caryophyllene (9,5%), α-zingiberene (9,4%), (E)- nerolidol (5,8%) và α-pinene (4,6%). β-Caryophyllene (24,1%), cis-β-elemene (19,4%), β- 18 730F pinene (10,0%), (E)-nerolidol (4,6%) và α-pinene (3,4%). β-Pinene (13,8%), β-phellandrene (11,3%), α-pinene 19 Zingiber 734L (7,3%) và cryptone (4,2%). montanum 20 734R Sabinene (41,1%), terpinen-4-ol (22,7%), γ-terpinene
18 TT Species Sample The main ingredient of essential oils (3,4%) và β-pinene (2,9%). β-Pinene (48,5%), α-pinene (10,7%), bicyclogermacrene 21 750L Zingiber (7,0%), α-zingiberen (6,4%) và germacrene D (4,7%). nitens Terpinen-4-ol (77,9%), γ-terpinene (4,6%) và cis-para- 22 750R menth-2-el-1-ol (2,0%). β-Pinene (34,0%), β-caryophyllene (13,9%), α-pinene 23 760L (10,9%) và bicyclogermacrene (9,6%). β-Caryophyllene (52,6%), linalool (11,0%), α-humulene 24 760S (5,9%) và caryophyllene oxide (4,4%). 25 760R β-Pinene (58,3%) và α-pinene (18,7%). β-Pinene (26,6%), β-caryophyllene (24,3%), α-pinene Zingiber (5,0%), germacrene D (3,6%), caryophyllene oxide 26 777L nudicarpum (3,6%), bicyclogermacrene (3,3%) và α-humulene (3,2%). 1,8-Cineole (21,2%), α-pinene (10,6%), β-pinene 27 777S (9,0%), caryophyllene oxide (8,0%), p-cymene (6,0%), β-selinene (5,4%) và α-copaene (3,1%). β-Pinene (9,8%), 1,8-cineole (6,8%), endo-fenchyl acetate (6,5%), β-caryophyllene (4,9%), α-humulene 28 777R (4,8%), selin-11-en-4β-ol (neointermediol) (4,4%), α- pinene (4,0%), borneol (4,0%), γ-cadinene (3,1%) và δ- 3-carene (3,1%). β-Caryophyllene (28,0%), β-pinene (17,1%) và cis-β- 29 772L elemene (17,0%). Zingiber Sabinene (21,6%), terpinene-4-ol (17,1%), zerumbone ottensii 30 772R (12,5%), β-pinene (11,7%), γ-terpinene (5,5%) và 1,8- cineole (4,3%). β-Pinene (24,7%), β-caryophyllene (12,3%), α- 31 472L humulene (7,7%) và α-pinene (6,9%). β-Pinene (26,1%), β-caryophyllene (13,9%), α- 32 472S humulene (8,2%), α-pinene (5,2%), camphene (4,8%) và Zingiber elemon (4,5%). vuquangense Bornyl acetate (20,9%), zerumbone (14,1%), α- 33 472R humulene (9,6%), β-pinene (8,0%), (Z)-9- octadecenamide (6,6%) và β-caryophyllene (4,5%). β-Pinene (19,6%), 1,8-cineole (15,6%), β-caryophyllene 34 472F (10,4%), α-pinene (10,3%) và camphene (5,4%). Zerumbone (40,6%), camphene (9,3%), a-humelene Zingiber 35 704R (6,8%), camphor (5,8%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5,8%) và zerumbet santolina triene (5,7%) Comment: L: leaves; S: pseudostems; R: rhizomes; F: fruits