Crisis in Europe

Struggles between Catholicism and Protestantism were at the root of a century of war and upheaval in Europe. Nations responded to the instability by giving absolute power to their monarchs. Art, literature, and political thought reflected the anxiety and uncertainty of the era.

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Social divisions, poverty, and economic crisis led to the French Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte took power in a coup d'etat and tried to overthrow Europe's old order. After his costly military campaigns, he was defeated and exiled.

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