Nuclei detection

This review provide s an overview of the recent de velopments in carbon nanomaterial-based bio sensors for viral recognition based on the biomarkers that arise from the infection, the nuclei c acids from the viruses , and the entire virus. The role of carbon nanomaterials is highlighted by the improvement of sensor and recognition functionality.

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The number of γH2AX foci per nucleus is an accepted measure of the number of DNA double-strand breaks in single cells. One of the experimental techniques for γH2AX detection in cultured cells is immunofluorescent labelling of γH2AX and nuclei followed by microscopy imaging and analysis.

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The protein ki67 (pki67) is a marker of tumor aggressiveness, and its expression has been proven to be useful in the prognostic and predictive evaluation of several types of tumors. To numerically quantify the pki67 presence in cancerous tissue areas, pathologists generally analyze histochemical images to count the number of tumor nuclei marked for pki67.

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The Ki67 Index has been extensively studied as a prognostic biomarker in breast cancer. However, its clinical adoption is largely hampered by the lack of a standardized method to assess Ki67 that limits inter-laboratory reproducibility.

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Systemic autoimmune diseases (SAD) are the diseases where multiple organs are involved in the presence of a large variety of auto antibodies directed against sub-cellular structures or molecules (E.g. nuclei, cytoplasm, mitochondria, DNA) and are characterized by presence of Antinuclear antibodies (ANA). Indirect immunofluorescence Assay (IIFA) on Hep-2 (human epithelial cell tumour line) is a classical technique for detection of ANA and is considered as “gold standard”.

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NMR is an experiment in which the resonance frequencies of nuclear magnetic systems are investigated. NMR always employs some form of magnetic field (usually a strong externally applied field B0) NMR is a form of both absorption and emission spectroscopy, in which resonant radiation is absorbed by an ensemble of nuclei in a sample, a process causing detectable emissions via a magnetically induced electromotive force.

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