Discovering language The Structure of Modern English

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(BQ) The document Discovering language The Structure of Modern English is organized under thematic headings, which are thoroughly cross-referenced, enabling students and teachers to use the book as required-either as a course text or to help with individual aspects of language. Each section includes an introduction, worked examples, in context sections relating the topic to real text examples, suggestions for further reading and analysis and a summary.

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Discovering Language The Structure of Modern English Lesley Jeffries
Discovering Language
PERSPECTIVES ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Series Editor: Lesley Jeffries Siobhan Chapman Thinking About Language: Theories of English Urszula Clark Studying Language: English in Action Lesley Jeffries Discovering Language: The Structure of Modern English Perspectives on the English Language Series Series Standing Order ISBN 0-333-96146-3 hardback ISBN 0-333-96147-1 paperback (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a stand- ing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in the case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England
Discovering Language The Structure of Modern English Lesley Jeffries
© Lesley Jeffries 2006 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2006 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978–1–4039–1261–9 hardback ISBN-10: 1–4039–1261–0 hardback ISBN-13: 978–1–4039–1262–6 paperback ISBN-10: 1–4039–1262–9 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Jeffries, Lesley 1956–. Discovering language : the structure of modern English / Lesley Jeffries. p. cm. – (Perspectives on the English language) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-4039-1261-0 – ISBN 1-4039-1262-9 (pbk.) 1. English language–Grammar. 2. English language–Phonology. 3. English language–Syntax. I. Title. II. Series. PE1106.J44 2006 425–dc22 2006044297 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 Printed and bound in China
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Contents List of Figures xii List of Tables xiii Series Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii Introduction 1 1 Phonetics 8 1.1 Introduction: human speech sounds 8 1.2 Vocal apparatus 10 1.2.1 Lungs to larynx 11 1.2.2 The oral and nasal cavities 12 1.3 Segments of sound 15 1.3.1 Consonants versus vowels 16 1.4 Consonants 17 1.4.1 Place of articulation 18 1.4.2 Manner of articulation 21 1.4.3 Voicing 23 1.4.4 English consonants 25 1.5 Vowels 29 1.5.1 The vowel chart 29 1.5.2 Front vowels 32 1.5.3 Back vowels 33 1.5.4 Central vowels 34 1.5.5 Diphthongs 35 1.5.6 Summary of English vowel sounds 36 vii
viii CONTENTS 1.6 Larger units 37 1.6.1 Syllables in English 38 1.6.2 Consonant clusters 40 1.6.3 Word stress 41 1.7 Further reading 43 2 Phonology 44 2.1 Introduction: English speech sounds 44 2.2 Phonemes 46 2.2.1 Minimal pairs 47 2.2.2 Allophones 49 2.2.3 Free variation 50 2.3 Connected speech 52 2.3.1 Assimilation 53 2.3.2 Elision 57 2.3.3 Insertion 59 2.4 Intonation and stress 60 2.4.1 Utterance stress 61 2.4.2 Tones 64 2.4.3 Tone groups 67 2.4.4 Discourse intonation 69 2.5 Further reading 70 3 Word 71 3.1 Introduction: word structures and classes 71 3.2 Morphology 72 3.2.1 Free and bound morphemes 73 3.2.2 Allomorphs 75 3.3 Word formation 76 3.3.1 Inflection 77 3.3.2 Derivation 80 3.3.3 Compounding 82 3.4 Lexical word classes 83 3.4.1 Noun 83 3.4.2 Verb 86 3.4.3 Adjective 89 3.4.4 Adverb 90 3.5 Grammatical word classes 92 3.5.1 Pronoun 93 3.5.2 Determiner 96 3.5.3 Preposition 97
CONTENTS ix 3.5.4 Conjunction 99 3.4.5 Auxiliary verb 99 3.6 Further reading 101 4 Phrase 102 4.1 Introduction: structures larger than words 102 4.2 Phrase structures 103 4.2.1 Noun phrase (NP) 104 4.2.2 Verb phrase (VP) 116 4.2.3 Adjective phrase (AjP) 121 4.2.4 Adverb phrase (AvP) 122 4.2.5 Prepositional phrase (PP) 122 4.3 Further reading 123 5 Clause and Sentence 124 5.1 Introduction: idealised structures 124 5.2 Clause functions 125 5.2.1 Subject (S) 126 5.2.2 Predicator (P) 127 5.2.3 Object (O) 128 5.2.4 Complement (C) 129 5.2.5 Adverbial (A) 134 5.3 Form and function relationships 137 5.3.1 Simple clause structures 138 5.3.2 Coordinated structures 141 5.3.3 Subordinate structures 144 5.4 Information structure 151 5.4.1 Cleft sentences/fronting 151 5.4.2 Transformations 153 5.5 Further reading 154 6 Semantics 156 6.1 Introduction: lexical meaning 156 6.2 Multiple meaning 158 6.2.1 Homonymy 159 6.2.2 Polysemy 162 6.3 Lexical description 163 6.3.1 Semantic features 164 6.3.2 Semantic fields 166 6.4 Sense relations 168 6.4.1 Synonymy 169
x CONTENTS 6.4.2 Hyponymy 170 6.4.3 Meronymy 172 6.4.4 Oppositeness (antonymy) 172 6.5 Semantic contexts 175 6.5.1 Collocation 176 6.5.2 Connotation 178 6.6 Further reading 180 7 Theory, Text and Context 182 7.1 Introduction: beyond the sentence 182 7.2 Cohesion 183 7.2.1 Repetition 184 7.2.2 Reference 184 7.2.3 Substitution 185 7.2.4 Ellipsis 185 7.2.5 Conjunction 186 7.2.6 Lexical cohesion 187 7.3 Conversation 188 7.3.1 Turn-taking 188 7.3.2 The cooperative principle 189 7.4 Context 190 7.4.1 Deixis 190 7.4.2 Metafunctions 191 7.5 Design features of human language 192 7.5.1 Arbitrariness 192 7.5.2 Duality of patterning 193 7.5.3 Open-endedness 193 7.5.4 Displacement/stimulus freedom 194 7.6 Dimensions of language 195 7.6.1 Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships 195 7.6.2 Diachronic and synchronic dimensions of study 196 7.7 Language system and use 196 7.7.1 Langue and parole, competence and performance 197 7.7.2 Reference and sense 198 7.7.3 Sign, signifier and signified 198 7.7.4 Denotation and connotation 199 7.7.5 The Sapir–Whorf effect 200 7.8 Further reading 200 Bibliography 202
CONTENTS xi Exercises and Questions 205 Chapter 1 Phonetics 205 Chapter 2 Phonology 206 Chapter 3 Word 208 Chapter 4 Phrase 208 Chapter 5 Clause and sentence 209 Chapter 6 Semantics 210 Answers to the exercises 211 Appendix: Syntactic Tree Diagrams 219 Glossary 224 Index 245
List of Figures I.1 The hierarchy of linguistic levels 5 1.1 The lungs and trachea 10 1.2 Structure of the larynx and vocal chords 11 1.3 The vocal folds during quiet breathing and voicing 12 1.4 The oral and nasal cavities 13 1.5 The tongue and its parts 14 1.6 The IPA consonant chart 19 1.7 The places of articulation 20 1.8 Daniel Jones’ vowel chart 29 1.9 Chart showing primary and secondary cardinal vowels 31 1.10 The pure vowels in English 32 1.11 English diphthongs 35 1.12 Syllable structure 39 2.1 Different handwritten versions of the letter A 46 2.2 The tones of English 64 5.1 Example of a SPC structure 130 5.2 Example of a SPO structure 130 5.3 Example of a SPOC structure 131 5.4 Example of a SPOO structure 132 6.1 Lexical gaps in English kinship terms 171 7.1 Cohesion in an English text 187 7.2 The relationship between sign, signifier and signified 199 xii
List of Tables I.1 The levels of language 4 1.1 The consonants of English 26 1.2 Plosive and nasal consonants in English 27 1.3 Fricative consonants in English 27 1.4 The approximants in English 27 1.5 Summary of RP English vowel sounds 37 1.6 Summary of differences between major accents of English 38 2.1 Minimal pairs/sets demonstrating English phonemes 48 2.2 Summary of English phonemes 51 2.3 Anticipatory assimilation in English phrases 54 2.4 Progressive assimilation in English words 56 2.5 Progressive assimilation in English phrases 56 2.6 Elision of consonants in English words 58 2.7 Elision of vowels in English words 58 2.8 Insertion reflected in the English spelling 59 2.9 Insertions not reflected in the English spelling 60 3.1 The forms of English verbs 88 3.2 The forms of English adjectives 89 3.3 The subject, object and possessive pronouns in English 94 4.1 Predeterminers in the noun phrase 105 4.2 Quantifiers in the noun phrase 105 4.3 Enumerators in the noun phrase 106 4.4 Quantifier/Determiner combinations in the noun phrase 106 4.5 Determiner/Enumerator combinations in the noun phrase 106 4.6 Ordinal and cardinal enumerators in the noun phrase 107 4.7 Adjective premodifiers in the noun phrase 107 4.8 Restrictions on adjective cooccurrence in the noun phrase 108 xiii
xiv LIST OF TABLES 4.9 Form-function relationships in the noun phrase 113 4.10 Verb phrase structure in English 117 4.11 Summary of English verb phrase structures 121 5.1 Complements in clauses 133 5.2 Word coordination within phrases 143 5.3 Coordinated clauses with matching structures 143 5.4 Coordinated clauses with different structures 143 5.5 Structure of sentences containing subordinate clauses 148 5.6 Structure of subordinate clauses 148 5.7 Structure of sentences containing noun clauses 149 5.8 Structure of noun clauses 150 5.9 Structure of adverb clauses 150 6.1 Sharing of semantic features in hyponymous sense relations 170
Series Preface This series has been a twinkle in my eye for a number of years. I am delighted to be able to launch it with the three ‘core’ books, Discovering Language, Studying Language and Thinking about Language, which together make a broad introduction to language study in general and the study of English in partic- ular. An explanation of why I felt these books were needed is probably useful here, and it will also serve as an explanation of the series as a whole. The first thing to note is that English language study is growing in Britain and elsewhere, to some extent at the expense of general linguistics. As a linguistics graduate myself I both regret this and also celebrate the numbers of students wanting to study English language. These students may be studying English language as part of a more general degree course, or as a single subject. All such students need tools of analysis. They need to be able to say what is going on in a text, whether that be a literary or non-literary text, spoken or written. Discovering Language: The Structure of Modern English aims to provide just these tools at the level required by undergraduates and their teachers. Whilst there are many other introductory books on the market, and some of them are very good in different ways, none of them does exactly what I want as a teacher of English language undergraduates. I want to be able to teach them the tools of analysis and gain expertise in using them separately from the question of where they come from and whether the theory behind them is consistent or eclectic. We have therefore separated out the contextual and theoretical issues, making sure that all the basic tools are in one volume, Discovering Language: The Structure of Modern English, while the issues of context are collected together in Studying Language: English in Action, and the basic theories of language which inform all of these approaches are discussed in Thinking about Language: Theories of English. xv
xvi SERIES PREFACE The aim of the second volume, then, Studying Language: English in Action, is to put into practice some of the analytical techniques learnt in Discovering Language, and to add to these skills by learning about the techniques and problems of studying real language data, either spoken or written, from dif- ferent points of view, whether social, geographical or even historical. The third book, Thinking about Language: Theories of English, enables the student to take a step back from the detail of description and research in order to con- sider what the underlying views of human language may be. It is likely that students will use these three books at different points in their studies, de- pending on the kind of course they are taking and the uses their tutors wish to make of them. The first three books in the series have a logical relationship (description, research and theory), but they can be used in flexible and inventive ways by tutors who find that the individual books do not fit exactly into the modules or course structures they are working to. The series will be developed from here with a ‘second wave’ of higher-level textbooks, each of which will cover the kind of topic that might be introduced in final-year optional modules or on Masters’ courses. These books are currently being commissioned, and the list is not final, but we hope to have titles on English Pragmatics, Conversation Analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis, Literary Stylistics and History of English. They will build upon the core texts by emphasising the three strands of these books: descriptive tools, underlying theories and the methodological issues relating to each topic. They will be written by scholars at the cutting edge of research, and will include both an overview and the latest developments in the field concerned. LESLEY JEFFRIES
Acknowledgements I would like to thank Urszula Clark and Siobhan Chapman, the authors of the other two companion books in this series, whose enthusiasm and efficiency in our joint project has helped me to write this book. The support of Kate Wallis, our ‘in-house’ editor, was also invaluable, and her belief in the project was infectious. The many students I have encountered at the University of Huddersfield over the years have taught me how not to explain the basics of English de- scription. I am grateful for this, and hope that this book shows that I have learnt at least some of their lessons. The remaining problems of exposition remain mine, of course. I am also indebted to colleagues at the University of Huddersfield and else- where for their support and intellectual stimulation which has informed some of this thinking for this book, though they will acknowledge that I do not always take their advice! The anonymous readers, in particular, made some very helpful suggestions, some of which I was able to take up. Finally, I would like to thank Jane Gaffikin, whose design and computing skills have ensured that the figures help to inform as well as looking just right. LESLEY JEFFRIES xvii
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Introduction This book is one of three companion books in the series Perspectives on the English Language. The others are Studying Language: English in Action by Urszula Clark and Thinking about Language: Theories of English by Siobhan Chapman. Together these three books provide the student of English with the foundation in descriptive apparatus, theoretical background and research skills needed at the undergraduate level. The current volume provides tools of analysis that students can use in their own linguistic studies in English, and sets aside (to the other volumes) the question of how one actually goes about studying ‘real’ language data (see Clark, 2006) and of the theory underpinning these tools (see Chapman, 2006). This book introduces the levels model of language, which enables students to learn about the smallest linguistic items (sounds) and work through the subsequent levels (morphology and syntax) until the sentence is reached. Many introductory books address the structural issues considered here, but they also usually include contextual and theoretical discussions that are dealt with in the other volumes in this series. As a result there is enough room to include a chapter on the basic lexical semantics without which the rest of the levels of language would not work. Students of the English language should find this book useful, whether they are taking a single honours degree in English Language, a linguistics degree or a combined degree that includes some element of the English lan- guage. It can stand alone as a wide-ranging guide to describing English or serve as the foundation for more advanced work on the linguistic features of English. It also combines effectively with the books by Clark and Chapman to provide a rounded education in the study and description of the English language. 1