How the japanese learn to work 2nd edition - part 10

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Policies and prospects 169 of post-war Prime Ministers, Hayato Ikeda. ‘Human resources’ (jinteki shigen) were two of his favourite words. The legal framework for the Ministry of Labour’s training and testing activities—the 1959 law—was set at that time. Retraining needs from the run-down of the coal industry as cheap oil began to flow in the 1960s provided another momentary focusing of political interest (and the brilliant idea of earmarking a tiny oil-import tax for that retraining led to a valuable source of finance for vocational training as a whole, via the Employment Projects Promotion Agency). In the 1970s, the switch to slower growth after the oil shock coming, together with the realization of how much more rapidly the Japanese population’s average age would rise than any other nation’s before, brought the question of retraining for the older, especially the ‘voluntary retired’, worker into political focus—and the revision of the Vocational Training Law in 1978 was in part a response to that. That issue still smoulders, but by and large VET is still not a matter of great political interest as it is in some other countries. No-one would think of appointing a political overlord to co-ordinate policy. Japan has so far avoided large-scale youth unemployment. If there is a concentration of unemployment among the least skilled segments of the working population, it has hitherto gone unremarked. Skill shortages are sometimes forecast—as when a MITI committee forecast a 600,000 deficit in software technicians by 1990—but these rate only relatively restricted coverage in the industrial press. The 1984 revision of the vocational training law (the Law to Promote the Development of Vocational Skills) requires the Minister of Labour to promulgate a national plan, but this formality amounts to little more than a description of the Ministry’s current budget initiatives and a forecasting of future ones. (See Cantor 1984, McDerment 1985, RDIVT 1984, etc. for accounts of the formal system.) CONSULTATION AND RESEARCH The viability of the sectionalist modus vivendi means that it is left to each Ministry separately to find ways of keeping in touch with its constituency, and of canvassing for suggestions about, or monitoring the effects of, its policies. The Ministry of Labour has a Central Consultative Committee (distinct from the Central Skill Development Association which has the executive function of running the testing services) on which sit eight ‘men of learning and experience’ (six professors, one essayist and one pension fund president), six trade unionists and six employers’ representatives. The Ministry of Education has a similar Consultative Committee for Scientific
1 70 How the Japanes learn to work and Vocational Education—similarly composed except that it does not have the formal trade union representation. Various bureaus in MITI set up ad hoc committees for separate fields—like the one quoted above on software skills, while the Enterprise Behaviour Section of the Policy Bureau, which has a watching brief for training matters in general keeps in touch with panels of outside experts and mobilizes them for particular research and consultative exercises. A similar section in MITI’s Small and Medium Enterprise Agency has a similar function. The purely consultative status of the formal bodies, and the general tradition that they should allow their secretariats to set their agendas, mean that their influence on policy is not great. Research efforts are equally multi-sourced. The Ministry of Labour has two research centres under its budgetary control—the one at its university- level Research and Development Institute of Vocational Training, and the other, a free-standing quango which takes the English title: National Institute of Employment and Vocational Research. The former is the only centre of note for work on the pedagogy of skill training, but both are engaged in socio-economic research. In the latter they are matched by the Ministry of Education’s National Institute for Educational Research and by a research institute—the Japan Efficiency Association—at Sanno College which is supported by MITI. (NIER tends to stick to work related to the schools within the Ministry of Education’s purview, and the JEA to research within industry, but there is a good deal of overlap.) There is also an employers’ training association (the Japan Industrial and Vocational Training Association, associated with the Japan Productivity Council) which spends a little over one per cent of its half-billion yen budget on research. Both the great degree of overlap in these research activities and their overall quality may be gauged from such of it as has been cited in these pages. Very little of it is observational or interview research; the vast bulk is postal survey research with low response rates, which raises as many questions as it answers. Nevertheless, it does answer some questions and raising others is also a very useful activity. It also has to be said that Japanese policy-makers are very well-served by the established statistical services— triennial establishment census, the annual wages survey, the monthly and annual labour surveys, the non-wage labour costs survey, etc. —which are maintained at a high standard.
Policies and prospects 171 RECENT TRENDS Vocational training, how much should be spent on it, how it can be improved in order to enhance the nation’s ‘competitiveness’ is no more a burning political issue in Japan than it was when the first edition of this book was written in 1988. An electronic trawl through two months of a major paper (The Nagoya Chunichi, October 1996 and February 1997) found no articles containing the words ‘vocational education’ (shokugyo kyoiku) and only 17 which contained the two words (occupation—shokugyo and education) separately. Only 9 contained the words ‘skill development’ (noryoku kaihatsu). In the same months there were 1,291 references to ‘primary education’, and 456 references to ‘middle schools’. There were 7 references to the vocational special training schools (senshu-gakko), and 1,444 articles which contained the word ‘university’. So society as a whole is not much exercised about vocational training, however it might actively question whether or not the basic educational system is producing the creative individualists which everybody seems to think Japan needs. For trends in thinking about the directions of the vocational educational system itself one is forced to have recourse to the four main monthly magazines for training specialists, and there it is difficult to discern any clear recent trends. We noted in the first edition of this book a general long-term shift of emphasis from concern with initial training to mid-career training. This was the more marked in Ministry of Labour circles because it failed to adapt the initial training programmes of its Vocational Training Centres to the rapid attenuation of the 15-year-old school-leaving group in the 1960s, it lost out to the private sector Special Training Schools in the attempt to capture the growing army of 18-year-old school-leavers, and has never succeeded in recapturing a substantial position in the initial training field. We also noted the changes of nomenclature which have occurred as, over the years, the image of the modal industrial trainee has shifted from that of the rude mechanical apprentice who needs a good dose of discipline in his instruction, to that of the middle-class, middle-aged employee struggling with a new software package, or trying to master a new set of environmental legislation. Training has not become a part of the ‘human resource management’ which has made acceptable for business schools what used to be called industrial relations in the US and Britain. As just mentioned, Prime Minister Ikeda popularized the phrase ‘human resources’ in the 1960s, but it never entered the formal vocabulary. But the old word shokugyo kunren—
1 72 How the Japanes learn to work vocational training—which used to be the title of the relevant Ministry of Labour’s Bureau, and also of the 1959 law, and the 1978 amended law, clearly had overtones of disciplined slog which were not thought consonant with the modern age. The word gave way, both in the title of the Bureau and in the 1984 comprehensive revamping of the legislation, to shokugyo noryoku kaihatsu—vocational ability (skill, talent) development—with its more positive, learner-participative overtones. Almost simultaneously, one began to hear more of the word j iko-keihatsu —self-study, literally, self- enlightenment—the vogue word for autodidactic efforts, of which much is still made, especially in company training programmes. The coming word, used in the title of the 1996 Ministry of Labour White Paper, is jinzai ikusei (shisutemu) —the (system for) fostering human talent. The increasing emphasis on self-study was (as explained in the Ministry’s 1985 White Paper (RH 1985:221)) in part a response to the increasing difficulty in standard-packaging industrial training, as the skills required increasingly involved know-how arising from rapid technological development, or enterprise-specific know-how in production processes. One of the main thrusts of the 1984 law was to use the enhanced funding of training (through use of the accumulated funds of the employment insurance system) for advisory support for, and subsidization of, enterprise training efforts. This included both deliberate Off-J-T teaching within the firm, and the enterprise standard-setting and enterprise skill-testing designed to encourage individual efforts at ‘self-enlightenment’ in supplementation of the Ministry’s own skill-testing system. We followed our summary of these trends with this paragraph. This emphasis on ‘self-enlightenment’ also reflects another trend, namely an increasing acceptance that the lifetime employment system, having survived the no-growth crisis in the mid–1970s and the adjustment to slow-growth since, is here to stay. That is to say, in spite of some marginal signs to the contrary such as the increased mobility of R & D personnel in large companies, the most complex, hard-to- learn skills (particularly those on which the competitiveness of the Japanese economy depends) will continue to be the property of the core of permanent workers in large firms. Indeed, some people argue that such a trend towards employing highly trained core workers is increasingly becoming apparent in older and hitherto more mobile industrial societies like Britain.
Policies and prospects 173 It would be difficult to write with quite the same assurance today. Over the last five years of recession, a recession caused partly by the accumulated strength of the yen, combined with the aftermath of the collapse of the biggest asset-price bubble in Japan’s history, what people say about employment, careers, and training has changed significantly. What people do has changed rather less. The main factors causing the change in perceptions have been: (a) A loss of national self-confidence. For every Japanese who, in 1990, was convinced that the world was at Japan’s feet, and that, thanks to the superiority of Japanese management and technology, it was only a matter of time before Japan was Number One in practically everything, there are now five Japanese wringing their hands and asking: ‘Where are our Bill Gates? Why don’t we have a flourishing venture capital industry? How are we ever going to survive in a competitive world economy with our rigid, creativity- stifling, bureaucratic corporations?’ (b) As described in Chapters 4 and 5, slow growth has indeed stretched the ‘lifetime employment guarantee’ to the limit, and many firms have responded with voluntary and quasi-voluntary early retirement schemes, with outposting and transfer of workers to other firms and so on. This has put a premium on the mastery of some particular certifiable skill, and since a high proportion of the early-retired are (the more expensive) white collar/ managerial workers, the courses they take (mostly by correspondence) are predominantly non-manual. Accountancy, Expert in Labour Law and Health and Safety Regulations, Business Health Diagnostician (consultant to small firms) are the favourites which one sees most frequently advertised. They are taken by middle-aged graduates uncertain of their future with their firm, and also—the first two at least—by young people who catch the ‘no more jobs for life’ mood and either ‘double-school’ (take a course leading to one of these qualifications while attending university) or study in the early years of their first job. (c) As a consequence, as documented earlier in this book, there has been a revival of the notion that what is universally seen as the American, or sometimes ‘Western’, model of the fully flexible external labour market, with frequent job changes in the course of one’s career, is what Japan ought to aim for, and is in any case dictated by the logic of flexibility increasingly imposed on Japan by competitive forces in world markets. There is much discussion of the end of, or more commonly and cautiously the need for a fundamental rethinking of, lifetime employment.
1 74 How the Japanes learn to work The Ministry of Labour is, of course, always having to think of something new, because the lifeblood of any Ministry comes from thinking up new and attractive programmes that can serve to increase its clout with the Ministry of Finance in the annual budget round. And attractive is generally deemed to mean ‘in keeping with the journalistic consensus’. So its major recent initiative has been its Business Career System promotion of white collar training courses leading to certification which has some market value. But the summary of trends in its 1996 White Paper is much less apocalyptic than some of the statements of futurologist businessmen proclaiming the dawn of a new age. Hitherto, most off-the-job training has been done within the firm, and most ‘self-enlightenment’ has been done at home. Henceforth, the emphasis will shift from on- to off-the-job training, and while self- study will continue to be important, a variety of training methods, including the use of training institutions outside the firm, will become necessary. (RH 1996:295–9) And the Ministry hopes that therein the beleaguered public training institutions might find a new lease of life. The reasons for the change it enumerates are: greater importance of information technology; the need for more language training with internationalization; more rapid change, therefore more midlife learning; and increasing need for R & D workers and others with highly specialized knowledge. It points out that Japanese firms have concentrated so exclusively on on-the-job learning that the need for off-the-job training has been neglected after the initial induction of recruits. But knowledge requirements become increasingly complex and more off- the-job training is clearly necessary. As for self-study, it finds satisfaction in its growing prevalence and cites surveys showing that half the working population are engaged in it, but urges employers to give it more attention and support—taking it into account more for promotions, etc. —and promises to increase Ministry support for it too. In this context it speaks of meeting the needs of people leaving or changing their jobs, but does not actually assert that their number is increasing; it does refer, however, to the increasing diversification of forms of employment— meaning more part-time, temporary and despatched workers. But it is clear that the Ministry is not expecting any very big change in the overall pattern of Japanese vocational training with its dominant emphasis on training in the enterprise. The resilience of the Japanese corporate system,
Policies and prospects 175 the sources of which, in manufacturing, have recently been analysed by Berggren and Nomura (1997), may one day not be enough to deal with a really deep crisis without radical change, but the longest post-war recession of the last half-decade did not constitute such a crisis. To take a few random statistics from the back of the 1996 White Paper: of the 5 million employees in firms of more than 30 employees who left their jobs in the year, the proportion who did so ‘at the employer’s convenience’ was 6.1 per cent in 1990, 7.5 per cent of an almost identical total in 1994. The proportion of all employees who were part-time, temporary or despatched workers was 16 per cent in 1987 and 18.1 per cent in 1992. The average wage of male university graduates was 31.9 per cent higher than that of middle school graduates in 1990, 31.2 per cent higher in 1995. If one weights the wage by (the inverse of) average age (the middle school-leavers are of course a good deal older on average) the graduate premium increases to 67.7 per cent in 1990 and 69.9 per cent in 1995. Bonuses (average for all employees) were 3.3 times the monthly wage in 1990, 3.1 times the monthly wage in 1995. Of all male employees aged over 55, 21.9 per cent were directors of the company they worked for in 1987, 21.6 per cent in 1992. And, finally, an indication of one source of flexibility: monthly hours worked were 171 in 1990 and 159 in 1995; in manufacturing hours were 174 and 164 respectively. The contribution that this sort of system stability and predictability makes to learning motivations should be fairly obvious.
Appendix
Appendix 177 NOTES The sums budgeted here provide a one-third subsidy for expenditures on relevant items by local governments or private schools, and a 60 per cent subsidy in the case of Okinawa. This is the budget for expenditure over and above the basic salary, running costs and capital costs which are provided on the same basis for vocational high schools as for other high schools. The ¥16,824 million total represents 0.3 per cent of the total Ministry of Education budget (which covers the universities, the science budget and museums and so on, as well as the school system) and is approximately one-quarter of the sum provided for special schools for the handicapped, and one-tenth of that provided for children with special needs in regular schools. 1 Experimental equipment and consumables, including materials for schools which make their own equipment. 2 Replacement of existing equipment. 3 Special increase occasioned by new regulation making domestic science compulsory for boys as well as girls. 4 To improve the experimental facilities necessary for the new objective of making it possible for pupils to acquire a qualified nursing certificate. 5 Boarding facilities to concentrate the scarce would-be farmers in special agricultural schools. 6 Standard cost allowed (including the local two-thirds contribution) ranges from ¥164,100 to ¥188,700 per square metre. 7 This is for special equipment which has to be built into new or renovated buildings. Mostly to be used for the expanded domestic science facilities. 8 For purchase and preparation of farm land at ¥15.5 million per hectare. 9 Two large and one small boat.
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Index Britain xvii 66, 99, 150; qualification Ability Development Matrix 76 system compared with Japan’s ability distribution: high school pupils 158–60; skill testing 138, 139–40 26–30; university entrants 33–6 budgets see public expenditure, ability-labelling problem xv–xvi, 16– training budget 17, 29, 33 bullying 7 academic attainment 8, 12, 16–17, 41 bureaucratic sectionalism 167–8 academic bias problem 15–17, 30–1, Business Career System 76, 94, 115, 33 174 access, open 156–8 business cycle 99 accreditation of private sectortraining business-related courses 43–4 74–5, 153 achievement levels 8, 12, 16–17, 41 calligraphy 114–15 Ad Hoc Committee on Educational Cantor, L. 69 Reform 13–14, 140–1, 168 career orientation 88 administrative initiatives 120–2, 145– central examination system 3–4, 13, 6 32 channelling/selection xviii, 15–41 agricultural courses 44 clustering 132 alienation 8 coastguard service 80 Aluminium Association 137 College for Industrial Efficiency 118– Amano, I. 4, 19, 39, 59 19 architecture 143–4, 152 colleges, junior see junior colleges armed forces 80 colleges of technology 1, 27, 29, 56– assessment 52, 62; see also skill 8, 164 testing commerce course 43–4 associations of employers 74–5, 138– commercial high schools 26, 27, 46, 9 50–1, 53 auxiliary nursing certificate 77 commercial mock tests 14, 21–5, 32 commitment 125–8 Berggren, C. 175 competence xvi–xvii; see also skill Beruf 97 testing Bhasanavich, D. 107, 111 competition 7–8, 13 bicycle maintenance 145–6 competitiveness x, xvii–xviii BMA 138 comprehensive practice 53 comprehensive vocational training books 114 schools 69, 73 Bosch (Robert) 123 computer colleges 76 ‘boy-scout-badge’ qualifications xvi– computers 53 xvii, 158
Bibliography 185 engineering 95–6; university entry consortia, training 132 33–6; university courses 59–66 Construction Industry Law 152 passim construction sector 148, 151–2 English romantic fiction, the art of consultation: policy making 169–71; translating 115 of unions by management 127–8 enterprise-operated qualification cooks 85–6 systems 122–5, 152–3 core skills xiii Enterprise Skill Development Plan core workers 172–3 152 correspondence courses 75–6, 109, enterprise training xviii–xix, 93–133; 114–19; tests and qualifications coverage 128–9; training budgets 119–22 98–101 counselling 18 entrance examination system 3–4, 13, cram schools 6, 21, 24 32 creativity 13 equality of opportunity 14, 40–1 curriculum: NEC school 103–5; equipment 52–3 nursing schools 77, 78; primary expenditure on training: enterprises schools and junior high schools 5; 98–101, 124–5, 130–1; parental senior high schools 9, 10–11; 162–3; public expenditure see universities 9–12, 60–2; vocational public expenditure high schools 17–18, 45–6, 48–51 experienced workers 109 external labour market 129, 130 external training xv, 101–8, 109, 131– dealers 153 2, 174 Dengyosha Pump Company 110, 112–13 factory certification 137 Denso Corporation 123–5, 125–6, 134 failure rates 62–3 dental hygienists/technicians 79 fees, student 91, 92, 163 dieticians 85–6 financial sector 36 disaffected students 18–19 firm size 151–2; enterprise training diversification 96–7 129–32; wage differentials 39–40 Dore, R.P. 62, 65, 120 fisheries courses 45 ‘double-schooling’ 89, 154 flexible worker development 111 foremen 108–9 earnings see lifetime earnings, pay foundations of industry 47 systems Fujitsu 107 economics 33, 35 Fukushima prefecture 26–30, 73–4 education centres 53 education system xviii, 1–14, 168–9; general high schools 1, 42; selection qualifications and 156–8 system 21–30, 31 electricity managers 120–2 geographical location 85 employers 19–20; associations of 74– gijutsushi qualification 155 grades of qualifications 143–5 5, 138–9; attitudes to high school graduate premium 37–10 graduates 22–3; see also enterprise graduate schools 2, 63–4 training, industry Grayson, L.P. 13, 65 Employment Promotion Corporation grounding, depth of 95–6 (EPC) 69–72 groupishness 8, 13 Energy Conservation Centre 121 Gumma College 58 energy managers 120–2
1 86 Bibliography HA/LA (high achiever/low achiever) Japan Institute of Vocational Training coefficient 36–7 118 hairdressing 85–6, 141–3 Japan Light Metal Welding and heat managers 120–2 Construction Association 135–7 hensachi slicing system 18, 21–30, Japan Management Association 119, 31, 32 156 high schools 1, 163, 163–4; entry to Japan Scholarship Foundation 91, 165 special training schools 84–5; Japan Shorthand Writers’Association general high schools see general 118, 146 high schools; junior curriculum 5; Japan Vocational Ability Development selection system 21–30, 31; senior Association (JVADA) 149 curriculum 9, 10–11; vocational Japan Welding Engineering Society high schools see vocational high 135, 137 schools; vocational streams 42–56 job placement services 90 Higuchi, Y. 36–7, 40, 163 job rotation 96, 106, 109, 110–11 Hitachi Vocational Training Schools junior colleges 1, 21, 24, 56–7, 58; 74–5 recognized 75, 102–6 home economics courses 45 hotel accommodation 100 kakushu gakko see miscellaneous human resources 168–9, 171–2 schools kindergarten 1, 163 IBM 94 Kinmonth, E.H. 63, 65–6 in-firm training schools 74–5, 102–6, Kodak 94 109 Komatsu 153 in-house qualifications 122–5, 152–3 Komatsu Dealers’ Association 153 incentives 125–6 Kosugi, Reiko 87, 88 induction training 102–7, 171 Kume, K. x industrial mathematics 47 Kuramae Technical High School 46, industry xiv; liaison with universities 48–9, 56 64–6; sectoral distribution of graduates 36–7; training within labour market 129–30, 151–2, 173–4 xviii–xix, 93–133; see also large firms 129–32; see also firm size employers legislation 120–2, 145; see also initial training 102–7, 171 Vocational Training Law Institute of Vocational Training 69–72 LETS campaign 55 integrated studies 17, 18, 19–20 levelling up 134 internal labour market 129 levels of qualifications 143–5 involvement see participation lifelong ability development 75–6, Ishida Hiroshi 40 168 Iwaki, H. 84–5 lifetime earnings 37–40 Iwaki City, Fukushima prefecture 26–30 lifetime employment 130, 172–4; and training 93–7 Japan Centre for Vocational Education 119 listed factories 120–1 Japan Efficiency Association (JEA) 170 literacy 12, 98 Japan Grooming School 81 local government 80 Japan Industrial and Vocational Lorriman, J. 110 Training Association 170 machinery 52–3
Bibliography 187 motivation 46, 97–8 management: cooperation with labour Muto, H. 62 127–8; training by managerial staff 109, 110, 112–13 manual skills tests 144–5 national exams 3–4, 13, 32 manufacturing sector 148 National Institute for Educational Maritime Association 137 Research (NIER) 170 Master’s degrees 96 national nursing certificate 77 Matsushita Electric 100; Technical National Police Agency 146 Junior College 75 national self-confidence 173 McCormick, K. 107 NEC 107; training school 102, 103–5, meritocracy 3, 14 106 mid-career recruitment 97 Nihon Victor 89 mid-career training 107–8 Noguchi, Y. 41 middle schools 1, 90 Nomura, M. 175 Mimizuka, H. 84–5 Non-destructive Testing Association 137 Ministry of Education 146, 165; non-formal in-firm training 108–14 budget 52–3, 176–7; Consultative non-manual skills tests 144–5 Committee for Scientific and non-official qualifications 155–6 Vocational Education 170; numeracy 12 correspondence courses 118; fund nursing courses 45 for equipment 52; post-secondary nursing schools 77–9 non-university VET 67, 81–6, 91; NYK 39 regulation of universities 60, 62; research centres 170 off-the-job training xv, 101–8, 109, Ministry of Health 67, 91; nursing 131–2, 174 schools 77–9 older, more experienced workers 109 Ministry of International Trade and open access 156–8 Industry (MITI) 65, 76, 167, 170; opportunistic training 106–7 bicycle maintenance 145–6; options 45–6 energy managers 120, 121 own time 126, 127 Ministry of Labour 67, 91, 159, 169, 174–5; Business Career System parental aspirations 30 76, 94, 115, 174; Central parental expenditure 162–3 Consultative Committee 169–70; parental income 40–1 correspondence courses 115–18; participation 125–9 firms’ internal skill testing 123, participation assumption 97–8 152–3; job placement services 90; pay systems 125, 159–60; see also post-secondary system 69–76; lifetime earnings research centres 170; skill testing peer approval 138 137, 145, 147–55; training budget personnel placement services 90 70–1 PHP (peace, happiness, prosperity) Ministry of Transport 80; Shipping philosophy 101 Bureau 137 policy xix, 167–75; budgets and miscellaneous schools 67, 68, 81; see ‘revealed priorities’ 163–6; co- also special training schools ordination 167–9; recent trends Mitsubishi Electric 110 171–5 mock tests 14, 21–5, 32 polytech centres 69, 73 moral duty xii, 12 polytechnic colleges 72 Moriyama, K. 41
1 88 Bibliography Research and Development Institute post-secondary, non-university VET of Vocational Training 170 xviii, 67–92 retirement, voluntary 154–5, 169, 173 practical work 46–53; equipment and retraining 96, 169 machinery 52–3; teaching and retraining centres 73 assessment 47–52 revitalization of vocational schools Prais, S. 12 17–20, 54–6 preliminary certificates 54 reward systems 125, 159–60 pre-promotion courses 107 Rohlen, T. 43, 106 primary schools 1; curriculum 5 rotation, job 96, 106, 109, 110–11 Private Educational Institutions Fund 91 private extra classes 6; cram schools Sako, M. 130 6, 21, 24 Sakurai, O. 18, 19 private schools 3, 28–9 Sanno Learning Society 118–19 private sector training: accreditation science 95–6; university courses 59– of 74–5, 153 64 passim; university entry 31–6 private training schools 81–92 passim private universities 3, 62, 65 Science and Technology Agency 65 professional trainers xiv-xv, 139–40 seamen’s schools 80 professors: cultivation of 65 secondary schools see high schools promotion 96, 109, 125; pre- sectionalism, bureaucratic 167–8 promotion courses 107 selection/channelling xviii, 15–41 public assistance 90–2; see also self-development, aid for 132 subsidies self-motivation 46 public corporations 80 self-study 172, 174 public expenditure xix, 1, 161–6; self-teaching 98 Ministry of Education budget 52– senshu-gakko see special training 3, 176–7; Ministry of Labour schools training budget 70–1 separation rate 94 service sector 148 qualifications xv–xvii, xix, 134–60; shopfloor workers 108–9 correspondence courses 119–22; skill development centres 69, 73 enterprise-operated systems 122– skill testing xiv, xix, 54, 134, 135–40; 5, 152–3; examinations run by correspondence courses 119–22; central government 140–6; firms’ inhouse 122–5, 152–3; Ministry of Labour 137, 145, 147–55; skill- recognition of 125; health 77–9; testing bodies 138–9; state role levels and grades 143–5; non- xvi, 138–9; welding 135–7 official 155–6; preliminary grades slicing system 18, 21–30, 31, 32 54; see also skill testing Small Business Corporation 76 Quality Circles 109, 111–14 small firms 129–32, 151–2; see also firm size Rawle, P.R. 66 small group work 109, 111–14 recognized junior colleges 75, 102–6 social mobility 40–1 recruitment 2, 98, 99; mid-career 97; special training schools 67, 68, 81– special training school graduates 92; contribution to human capital 86–8; university graduates 36–7, 88–90; graduates 86–90; public 63, 64, 65–6, 95–6 assistance 90–2; types of school research: policy 169–71; scientific 64, 82–6 64–5

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