WORLD HISTORY –RELIGION ORIGIN CHARACTERISTICS

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– WORLD HISTORY – RELIGION ORIGIN CHARACTERISTICS Hinduism India in 1500 B.C. Hinduism has no single founder; it developed over a period of 4,000 years. One of its main features is a caste system, in which people are born into a prescribed class and follow the ways of that class. They are polytheistic. It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha. Buddhists believe in a cycle of rebirth. The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is to achieve nirvana, an enlightened state free from suffering.

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– WORLD HISTORY – R ELIGION ORIGIN CHARACTERISTICS ■ Hinduism India in 1500 B.C. Hinduism has no single founder; it developed over a period of 4,000 years. ■ One of its main features is a caste system, in which people are born into a prescribed class and follow the ways of that class. ■ They are polytheistic. ■ Buddhism India in 525 B.C. It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha. ■ Buddhists believe in a cycle of rebirth. ■ The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is to achieve nirvana, an enlight- ened state free from suffering. ■ Judaism Middle East, now The belief in a single, all-powerful God is central to Judaism. ■ Israel—the Jewish The Torah—the instructions believed to be handed down from God to calendar begins Moses—encompasses Jewish law and custom. with the biblical time of the Creation ■ Christianity Jerusalem, now in Early followers believed that Jesus fulﬁlled the Jewish prophesy of the Israel—Christian Messiah. ■ calendar begins The Gospels in the Bible’s New Testament describe the teachings and life with the birth of of Jesus. ■ Jesus Beliefs include that Jesus is the son of God and that after cruciﬁxion, he rose from the dead. Arabia in 622 A.D. ■ Its followers, called Muslims, believe in one all-powerful God. Islam ■ They adhere to the codes of living set forth in the holy book of Islam, the Qur’an (Koran). ■ The founder of Islam was Muhammed, a prophet who lived in Mecca in the sixth century, A.D. E XERCISE 1 The Middle Ages Choose the best answer to the question based on the As the Roman Empire began to fracture in the fourth information in the chart. The answer is on page 168. and ﬁfth centuries, a period that historians refer to as the Middle Ages began in Western Europe. During this time, 1. What conclusion can you make based on the culture centered on Christianity as the Roman Catholic information in the chart? Church gained authority and missionaries spread Chris- a. All major religions believe in a single, all- tian ideas. A new social organization called feudalism powerful God. developed. Based on an agricultural society, this system b. Most religions developed in the last divided people into classes. The ruling class consisted of millennium. nobles, while the majority of people were in the peasant c. Religion is not a force in today’s world or serf class. Between the eleventh and fourteenth cen- culture. turies, European Christians led a series of wars called the d. Many of the world’s major religions have Crusades to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. inﬂuenced human culture for over a thousand Although they did not achieve this goal, the wars brought years. Europe in contact with Arab culture, stimulated com- e. All of today’s major religions had their begin- merce between regions, and increased geographical nings in the Middle East. knowledge. By the fourteenth century, wars, famine, and the spread of the bubonic plague, or Black Death—an 135
– WORLD HISTORY – infectious disease that killed up to one-third of all Euro- logical progress. The scientiﬁc developments of sixteenth peans—weakened the feudal economy. and seventeenth centuries acted as a precursor to the Enlightenment. Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus, and Isaac Newton contributed new ideas about astron- The Renaissance In the 1400s, a rediscovery of Greek and Roman litera- omy and physics that challenged the understanding of ture led to the humanist movement in Europe, which the physical world. Later, the philosophy of John Locke called for a return to classical ideals. As Western Europe inﬂuenced attitudes about the role of the individual in became more stable again, a period of intellectual devel- society and challenged the notion that knowledge is opment began. The Renaissance, meaning “rebirth,” led inborn. The works of the French philosopher Jean to advances in the sciences, music, literature, art, and Jacques Rousseau shaped political and educational the- architecture. During its height in the ﬁfteenth and early ory, as did the ideas of Immanuel Kant in Germany, sixteenth century, artists like Piero della Francesca, David Hume in England, and Benjamin Franklin and Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Rafael con- Thomas Jefferson in the American colonies. tributed works praised for their grandeur and sense of harmony. E XERCISE 2 Select the best answer to the questions based on the para- graph about the Age of Enlightenment. The answers are The New World European exploration of North America began in the on page 168. tenth century when Viking explorers landed in Green- 1. land and Newfoundland. However, Christopher Colum- Which of the following statements about the bus’s landing in the Bahamas in 1492 had a greater Enlightenment is an opinion? impact on the history of the world. Under the service of a. The proponents of the Enlightenment Spain, Columbus sailed west, hoping to discover a believed in rationality. quicker trade route to Asia. He landed in the Caribbean b. The Enlightenment philosophers challenged instead. His historic journey marked the start of Euro- formerly held beliefs. pean exploration and colonization in the New World. c. The Enlightenment was an international (See the table at the bottom of this page.) movement. d. John Locke contributed the most to the Enlightenment philosophy. Age of Enlightenment The Enlightenment describes a period in Europe and e. Hume, Kant, Jefferson, and Franklin shared a America during the eighteenth century in which philoso- faith in human reason. phers celebrated rational thought, science, and techno- Early European Explorers DATE ( A . D .) EXPLORER ORIGIN LANDING SITE 986 Eric the Red Iceland Greenland 1000 Leif Ericsson Norway North America, possibly Newfoundland 1492 Christopher Columbus Spain Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola 1497 John Cabot England Cape Breton Island 1499 Amerigo Vespucci Italy, later Spain North coast of South America 1500 Gasper Corte-Real Portugal Between Labrador and Newfoundland 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon Spain, later governor Florida and Mexico of Puerto Rico 136
– WORLD HISTORY – 2. described the history of society as a history of class strug- Which was the most likely factor that contrib- gles between the ruling class and the exploited working uted to the beginning of the Enlightenment? class. Marx believed that the working class would over- a. scientiﬁc discoveries in the previous century throw the powerful capitalist class of the Industrial Rev- b. feudalism olution and create a classless society. His ideas later c. the French Revolution inﬂuenced Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and the formation of d. the Crusades the Communist state in Russia. e. missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe World War I World War I (1914–1918) involved 32 countries, includ- French Revolution ing many European nations, the United States, and other The French Revolution (1789–1799) ranks as one of the nations around the world. By the war’s end, ten million most important events in Europe. Increased criticism of soldiers were killed and 20 million wounded. The assas- the monarchy by thinkers of the Enlightenment, as well sination of the heir to Austro-Hungarian throne by a Ser- as unequal taxation and persecution of religious minori- bian nationalist was the immediate cause of the war, but ties, were some of the factors that led to political conﬂicts between European nations over territory and upheaval. Food shortages and economic depression were economic power were also factors. Two coalitions of a more immediate cause. Parisians revolted in 1789 by European nations formed. The Central Powers included violently overtaking the Bastille, a prison in Paris. Aris- Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The tocrats, including the king and queen, were beheaded. Allied Powers included Great Britain, France, Serbia, Rus- Political unrest followed until Napoleon Bonaparte sia, Belgium, and Italy. The ﬁghting ended in 1918 when emerged as a leader in 1799 and declared himself the Allies defeated German forces. With the Treaty of Ver- emperor in 1804. Although it appeared to be a failure at sailles in 1919, the war ofﬁcially ended. One of the most the time, the Revolution created a precedent for repre- destructive wars in European history, World War I left sentative governments around the world. It also intro- European powers in enormous ﬁnancial debt and greatly duced revolution as a means of seeking different kinds of weakened. freedom. The Russian Revolutions of 1917 The Industrial Era Peasant and worker uprisings led to two revolutions in By the mid-nineteenth century, changes in technology Russia during 1917. The ﬁrst overthrew the Tsar Nicholas began to transform Europe and the United States from II, an absolute monarch from the Romanov dynasty who societies with an agricultural base to ones with an indus- ruled the country. A provisional government took control trial base. This period is called the Industrial Revolution. but could not solve the problems that led to the upris- The introduction of steam-powered engines, inventions ing—mainly the devastating effect of the country’s that increased the output of cotton textiles, and the involvement in World War I. Vladimir Lenin and a group advent of the railroad are some of the technological of revolutionary socialists called the Bolsheviks took changes that increased the speed of production and power. The Bolsheviks hoped to transform Russia into a transportation of goods. classless society called the Union of Soviet Socialist The doctrine of laissez-faire appealed to factory own- Republics (USSR). However, the Communist regime that ers of the Industrial Revolution. Supported by econo- they created became increasingly authoritarian and mists like Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill, this eventually controlled the economic, social, and political doctrine stated that economic systems work better with- life of the nation. After Lenin’s death, Bolshevik Joseph out intervention by government. Another doctrine that Stalin became the dictator of the Soviet Union. He ruled developed during this period was The Communist Man- with total and often brutal control. The Communist ifesto, a document of communist principles. Authored by German writer Karl Marx in 1848, the Manifesto 137
– WORLD HISTORY – regime continued to hold power until its collapse in E XERCISE 3 Use the information from the passage about World War 1991. II to answer the questions. The answers are on page 168. World War II 1. Which of the following is NOT a likely conse- World War II (1939–1945), the deadliest and most quence of World War II? destructive war in history, began between Germany and a. death of millions the English and French, but later included all of the b. the end of racism major world powers. The rise of fascism—an Italian term c. destruction of cities for military-based totalitarian governments—as well as d. shift in world power the effects of economic depression, fueled the conﬂict. e. threat of nuclear war The peace settlements of World War I also left three powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—dissatisﬁed, and 2. Based on the information about World War II, each wanted to increase its territory. In Germany, Adolf which of the following is a likely assumption as Hitler of the German National Socialist (Nazi) Party, to why Hitler rose to power? promoted national pride and offered a scapegoat for the a. Hitler’s totalitarian government exercised country’s economic problems: the Jews. His racist poli- absolute power. cies led to the persecution and murder of millions of b. Many citizens resisted the rise of the Nazi Jewish people and other Europeans, an atrocity now Party. known as the Holocaust. c. Germans wanted a powerful leader who Germany, with Hitler in power, began an aggressive would lift them out of ﬁnancial chaos. campaign in Europe, invading Czechoslovakia. Hitler d. Germans needed a leader to fend off British then created an alliance with Italy and Japan to form the and French aggression. Axis Powers. When Germany invaded Poland, Great e. Nazi propaganda techniques were not Britain and France entered the war. By 1940, the only successful. Allied force to resist German occupation was Great Britain. However, Great Britain gained an ally when Ger- many invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. U .S. Histor y Although the United States was trying to be neutral in the conﬂict, events forced it to enter the war. On Decem- A New Nation ber 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, a U.S. military After Columbus landed in the Bahamas in 1492, Western base in the Paciﬁc. On December 11, Germany and Italy Europe began colonization of the Americas. Spain, Por- declared war on the United States. The United States tugal, France, The Netherlands, and England had vast joined the Allied forces and helped turn the war in its holdings in the New World. A group of English immi- favor. In May 1945, Germany surrendered. In August grants called Puritans—people seeking to purify the 1945, the United States dropped the ﬁrst atomic bomb Church of England—started settlements in New Eng- on Hiroshima, Japan, and another on Nagasaki, Japan. land. One group, known as the Pilgrims, landed in Ply- Five days later, Japan surrendered. mouth, Massachusetts in 1620. These settlers established World War II devastated entire cities, and both civil- the Plymouth Colony and created the Mayﬂower Com- ians and soldiers suffered. Tens of millions of people were pact, an agreement that said the colonists would make killed. The war revolutionized warfare by introducing decisions by the will of the majority. This became the nuclear weapons. Politically, power shifted away from ﬁrst instance of self-government in America. Through- Great Britain and France, and the United States and the out the British colonies, forms of self-government Soviet Union emerged as world powers. After the war, the developed. Soviet Union kept control of its occupation zones in Aus- tria and Germany and took power in Eastern Europe. This expansion threatened the West and started the Cold War, a struggle for power between the capitalist West and the Communist bloc that lasted until 1989. 138
– WORLD HISTORY – T HE D ECLARATION I NDEPENDENCE E XERCISE 4 OF In the mid-eighteenth century, England and France Read the following question and select the best answer. fought over land in the upper valley of Ohio in the The answer is on page 168. French and Indian War. England gained control of all ter- 1. ritory east of the Mississippi, but the war left the coun- Which of the following was a consideration in try deeply in debt. To pay off the debt, King George III creating the Bill of Rights? and British Parliament established ways to tax the a. dividing power between the three branches of colonists. The Stamp Act of 1765 required that all printed government material—newspapers, legal documents, and other b. creating a judicial system papers—bear a British stamp and that colonists pay for c. forming a strong central government these seals. The Townshend Acts of 1767 placed new taxes d. protecting the rights of states on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea. Boston merchants e. securing the liberties of individuals began boycotting English goods. When three shipments of tea arrived in Boston Harbor in 1773, angry citizens Sectionalism threw the cargo overboard in an incident called the During the late 1700s and early 1800s, the United States Boston Tea Party. expanded its territory. In 1803, President Thomas Jeffer- In punishment for this protest, England closed the son doubled the size of the country by buying land from port of Boston and passed the Intolerable Acts, which France through the Louisiana Purchase. Under President limited the political freedom of the colonists. This led to James Monroe, westward expansion continued. Despite further protest, and in 1775, ﬁghting between the this growth and the country’s increased wealth, eco- colonists and the British marked the start of the Revolu- nomic and cultural differences between regions devel- tionary War. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of oped. Sectionalism—each section of the country Independence, a document that describes the American supporting its own self-interests instead of the nation’s ideal of government and lists the injustices of the king. interests—took root. The Northeast relied on an indus- The Second Continental Congress, a meeting of represen- trial economy while the South had an agricultural econ- tatives from the 13 colonies, approved the declaration on omy supported by slave labor. One major issue July 4, 1776. concerned whether new states in the Union would become free states or allow slavery. A group called the abolitionists believed slavery was wrong and wanted it T HE U.S. C ONSTITUTION The colonies won their independence after seven years of abolished throughout the nation. In 1857, the Dred Scott the Revolutionary War. The new states created a system decision by the Supreme Court increased the hostility of government under the Articles of Confederation. This between the North and South. In the case, Dred Scott, a framework limited the power of the central government slave, argued that because his owner moved to a free ter- and allowed the states to act as separate nations. This sys- ritory, he should be free. The court ruled that slaves were tem could not address issues such as national defense, not citizens and therefore could not sue. It also ruled trade between states, or a common currency. In 1787, that it could not ban people from bringing slaves to free leaders met to draft the Constitution, which was territories. approved by the states in 1788. The Constitution outlines the fundamental principles of the American republic. It deﬁnes the powers of Congress, the president, and the federal judicial system, and divides authority in a system of checks and balances so that no branch of government can dominate over the others. To calm the fears of those that believed a central government would interfere with individual freedoms, the framers of the Constitution added the Bill of Rights. These ten amendments to the Constitution safeguard citizens’ rights, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion. 139
– WORLD HISTORY – T he Civil War Big Business Abraham Lincoln, considered by the South to be a threat From 1860 into the next century, the United States expe- to slavery, was elected president in 1860. Eleven southern rienced an explosion of industrialization. Just as the states withdrew from the Union. They formed a separate Industrial Revolution changed Europe, it altered life in the government called the Confederate States of America. new nation. Natural resources, technological advances, Here is the division between free and slave states in 1861: railroad expansion, and a new wave of immigrants in the workforce made industrial growth possible. Businesses began to operate over broad geographic areas and grew F REE S TATES Maine Indiana into large corporations. Tycoons of the steel and oil New Hampshire Illinois industry like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller Vermont Michigan controlled much of the marketplace. The powerful Massachusetts Wisconsin industrialists supported the policy of laissez-faire: They Rhode Island Iowa believed government should not interfere with business. Connecticut Minnesota Large-scale production changed the workplace. New Jersey Kansas Laborers were more likely to work in large factories than New York Oregon in small workshops. Machines and unskilled workers Pennsylvania California replaced skilled workers to keep costs down. Many Ohio worked long hours doing monotonous work in danger- ous conditions. As a result, national labor unions began to form to protect the rights of workers. The ﬁrst S LAVE S TATES Maryland South Carolina* national labor union was the Knights of Labor, which Delaware Georgia* organized in 1869. In 1886, the American Federation of Virginia* Florida* Labor (AFL) formed, joining together a network of local Kentucky Alabama* unions. Led by Samuel Gompers, an immigrant cigar Missouri Mississippi* maker, the union rallied for improved hours, wages, and Louisiana* Arkansas* working conditions. Reformers, called the Progressives, Texas* Tennessee* wanted to curb the power of big business and protect North Carolina* working people. Among other goals, progressive reform- ers wanted to end child labor and introduce a minimum wage. Through their efforts, government at the local, T ERRITORIES Washington Nevada state, and national level began to regulate business. Dakota Colorado New Mexico Utah E XERCISE 5 Indian Nebraska Use the information from the big business passage to select the best answer for each question. The answers are *Confederate States on page 168. In 1861, Confederate soldiers opened ﬁre on Fort 1. Which of the following slogans would industrial- Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, and the Civil War ist John D. Rockefeller most likely support? began. The “War Between the States” lasted four years a. Live Free or Die and eventually killed 600,000 people. It also destroyed an b. Our Union, Our Voice estimated $5 billion in property. The war ended in 1865 c. Equal Pay for Equal Work after the surrender of Robert E. Lee, the most important d. That Government Is Best Which Governs general of the Confederacy. Four million slaves were Least freed during the period of Reconstruction that followed e. Big Government the war. Five days after the Northern victory, President Lincoln was assassinated by a Confederate sympathizer. Resentment and division between the South and North were not resolved for decades after the war’s end. 140
– WORLD HISTORY – 2. Which of the following was NOT a goal of the The New Deal Progressives? a. improve workers’ safety Agricultural Adjustment Act—paid farmers to b. stop legislation that restricted business slow their production in order to stabilize practices food prices c. increase government regulation National Industrial Recovery Act—outlined d. prohibit child labor codes for fair competition in industry e. set a minimum level for wages Securities and Exchange Commission — established to regulate stock market The Great Depression Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation— In the 1920s, the country enjoyed a prosperous period. insured bank deposits in the case that banks Business expanded and investors speculated in the stock fail market, often borrowing money on easy credit to buy Public Works Administration—built roads, shares of a company. Money ﬂowed into the stock mar- public buildings, dams ket until October 24, 1929, when the market collapsed. Tennessee Valley Authority—brought electric Investors lost fortunes overnight, businesses started to power to parts of the Southeast close, workers were laid off, and banks closed. The stock market crash of 1929 marked the onset of the Great Depression, which lasted through the 1930s. By 1933, unemployment reached 25%, more than 5,000 banks Although the New Deal brought relief, it did not end were closed, and over 85,000 businesses had failed. the Depression. The economy did not revive until the Elected in 1932, President Franklin D. Roosevelt nation entered World War II in the 1940s. However, the started a relief effort to revive the economy and bring aid New Deal had long-lasting effects. It expanded the pow- to people who were suffering the effects of the depres- ers of the central government to regulate the economy, sion. He called his program the New Deal. In what is now and it created “safety-net” programs that would assist called the First Hundred Days, Roosevelt and Congress citizens. passed major legislation that saved banks from closing and regained public conﬁdence. The following box lists some of the important measures passed in 1933, the ﬁrst year of Roosevelt’s presidency. 141
CHAPTER 15 Civics and Government THE PERCENTAGE of civics and government questions on the 2002 GED was greater than in any previous year. The material on the Social Studies Test will come from both national (American) and global contexts, so it will be to your advantage to be prepared to answer a wide variety of questions. I N THIS CHAPTER, you will learn about the basic ideas of civics (the rights and responsibilities of citizens) and government (the way that political power is organized and distributed). After an overview of the dif- ferent types of political systems that exist in other countries, you will review the American system of gov- ernment: its structure at the federal, state, and local levels; voting and election procedures; political parties; and the process of becoming an American citizen. P olitical Systems Varying types of political systems can be found around the world. These types differ in how power is attained and how it is used. See the chart on the next page. 143
– CIVICS AND GOVERNMENT – T YPE OF G OVERNMENT CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES ■ ■ Monarchy One person from a royal family is ruler. Saudi Arabia ■ ■ Power is inherited from generation to generation. Morocco ■ Absolute monarchs have complete authority. Absolute monarchy: ■ Swaziland ■ Constitutional monarchs have limited authority; Constitutional a representative democracy governs. monarchies: ■ Great Britain ■ Japan ■ Sweden ■ ■ Dictatorship It is ruled by one leader who has absolute power over many Nazi (National aspects of life, including social, economic, and political. Socialist) govern- ■ Leader is not elected by the people. ment of Adolf Hitler ■ General Augusto Pinochet in Chile from 1973–1990 ■ ■ Oligarchy It is governed by a small upper-class group. City-state of Sparta ■ Leaders are not elected by the people. in ancient Greece ■ Democracy In direct democracy, decisions are made by the people. Representative ■ In representative democracy, people elect ofﬁcials to democracies: ■ represent their views. United States ■ Canada ■ Most European nations E XERCISE 6 2. In which of the following political systems would Use the information from the chart to answer the fol- citizens have the most inﬂuence over lawmaking? lowing questions. The answers are on page 168. a. absolute monarchy b. dictatorship 1. A military leader uses his power to overthrow a c. oligarchy country’s government and names himself the d. direct democracy absolute leader of the government. He takes over e. representative democracy all the nation’s television stations and newspa- pers. What kind of government has he set up? T he American System of a. absolute monarchy Government b. dictatorship c. oligarchy d. direct democracy The United States is a federal republic—a representative e. representative democracy democracy in which power is split between a central government and the states. To ensure that power is not concentrated in one authority, the central, or federal, 144
– CIVICS AND GOVERNMENT – government is divided into three branches: the legislative, ernments vary from the state and federal model. There executive, and judicial. Each branch has an important are three basic forms of local government: function: Mayor-council—in this form, voters elect a The legislative branch makes laws. mayor as city or town executive and they elect ■ The executive branch carries out laws. a council member from each speciﬁc ward. ■ The judicial branch interprets laws. Council-manager—in this form, voters elect ■ council members, who, in turn, hire a manager The U.S. Constitution also allows each branch to place to run the day-to-day operations of the city or controls or limits on the power of the other two town. branches, so that no one branch dominates. This frame- Commission—in this form, voters elect commis- work is called the system of checks and balances. For sioners to head a city or county department, example, the legislature (U.S. Congress) may pass a bill, like the ﬁre, police, or public works but before it can become law, the executive (the presi- department. dent) must sign it. The president can refuse it by vetoing it. However, Congress can still pass the bill into law—in State governments must approve and grant power to, or an action called overriding the veto—if two-thirds of its charter, all town and city governments. members vote for it. (See table at bottom of this page.) Political Parties Although the U.S. Constitution does not mention the State and Local Governments State governments resemble the framework of the federal existence of political parties, they have played an inﬂu- government. The governor acts as the chief executive and ential role throughout most of the country’s history. A can veto legislation. Most states have legislatures made of political party is an organization that presents its posi- two houses, and each state has its own court system, con- tions on public issues and promotes candidates that sup- stitution, and a system of checks and balances. Local gov- port its point of view. STRUCTURE OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ■ Executive Branch President A president is elected by the voters for four-year term. ■ Vice President A president cannot serve more than two terms. ■ Agencies Vice president becomes head of state if the president Departments becomes disabled or dies in ofﬁce. ■ Agencies carry out a president’s policies and provide special services. ■ Department heads advise a president and carry out policies. ■ Legislative Branch U.S. Congress: Number of representatives for each state is based on the House of population of that state. ■ Representatives Representatives serve two-year terms. ■ Senate Each state has two senators. ■ Senators serve six-year terms. ■ Judicial Branch U.S. Supreme Court U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation. ■ Circuit Courts The president appoints the nine justices of the Supreme Court. ■ of Appeals Term is for life. Federal District Courts 145
– CIVICS AND GOVERNMENT – Political parties serve several functions: Voting and Elections To vote in the United States, a person must be 18 years old and a U.S. citizen. Presidential elections occur every recruit candidates and run election campaigns ■ four years, and Congressional elections are held every formulate positions on issues that affect the pub- ■ two years. Most national elections in the United States lic and propose solutions use a plurality system, which means that a candidate need educate the public on issues ■ only receive more votes than his or her opponent to win. mobilize their members to vote ■ In contrast, some European nations have proportional create voting blocs in Congress ■ representation. In this system, if a political party earns 15% of the vote, it would be awarded 15% of the parlia- Since the mid-nineteenth century, two political parties mentary seats. have dominated in American politics: the Republican In the United States, primary elections are held before and Democratic parties. The two parties differ on social, general elections. In primaries, voters give their prefer- economic, and domestic policies. They also hold differ- ence for a political party’s candidate. General elections ent beliefs as to the role of government. The Republican then decide the ultimate winner. Party supports powerful state governments with less involvement on the federal level, while the Democratic Party supports a strong centralized government with less Becoming an American Citizen Immigrants come to the United States for many reasons: power on the state level. Other current political organi- Some seek economic opportunity, while others wish to zations include the Green, Libertarian, Reform, and escape political persecution in their native countries. Socialist parties. Beneﬁts of U.S. citizenship include enjoying the free- doms and rights outlined by the Constitution. To E XERCISE 7 become a citizen, a person must apply, pass an exam, and Choose the best answer based on the information pro- appear for a court hearing. This process, also called nat- vided about political parties. The answer is on page 168. uralization, is conducted by the Immigration and Natu- ralization Service (INS). The following are some of the 1. Which of the following conclusions can you requirements for citizenship. Candidates must: make about political parties? a. They should be outlawed because they are not be at least 18 years old mentioned in the Constitution. ■ reside legally in the United States for ﬁve years b. Prior to the nineteenth century, the Green, ■ be a person of good moral character Libertarian, Reform, and Socialist parties were ■ understand and be able to communicate in basic more inﬂuential than they are today. ■ English c. Political parties have an inﬂuential role in the demonstrate a basic knowledge of U.S. history, political process today. ■ government, and the Constitution d. It’s hard to tell the Democratic and Republi- be willing to take an oath of allegiance to the can parties apart these days. ■ United States e. Third-party candidates can alter the outcome of an election. 146
CHAPTER 16 Economics ON THE GED, questions about economics will include the areas of supply and demand, inflation and deflation, and economic systems. Many economics questions will ask you to interpret and analyze a chart or graph, so practice in working with visual aids will be helpful in your preparation. E is defined as the study of the ways that goods (and services) are bought, sold, CONOMICS distributed, and used. The economics questions on the GED will require that you have a good grasp of the relationship of supply and demand, recession and depression, how economic growth is measured, and how the U.S. government is involved in the nation’s economy. T ypes of Economic Systems None of the three basic economic systems—capitalism, socialism, and communism—exists in pure form. Each has some characteristics of the others. For example, in the U.S. economy, which is primarily capitalist, the govern- ment does place some controls over private business in order to protect consumers. 147
– ECONOMICS – T YPE CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES ■ ■ Capitalism Individuals and private organizations own and operate businesses. United States ■ Free market determines production and distribution of goods and services. ■ Prices set by supply and demand. ■ ■ Socialism State owns and operates many businesses and services. Sweden ■ Private ownership is allowed. ■ Citizens pay high taxes to fund state-run social services, including healthcare, food, and housing. ■ ■ Communism State, or the community, owns all businesses. People’s ■ State controls distribution of goods and services. Republic of China ■ ■ State provides social services. Cuba ■ Former Soviet Union T he Marketplace customers are willing to pay high prices for the phones. As the price drops, demand increases. In the United States, prices are determined by the “mar- E XERCISE 8 ket,” or the principle of supply and demand. Supply is the Refer to the graph “Supply and Demand Curves for Cell amount of goods and services available for purchase. Phone XLZ” on page 149 to answer the following ques- Demand is determined by how many people want to buy tions. The answers are on page 169. those goods and services. Generally, when demand increases, supply increases, and when demand decreases, 1. At what price does the supply of cell phone supply decreases. Industries charge prices that cover the model XLZ equal that of demand? cost of production and make a proﬁt for their company. a. $1,400 Industries try to get the highest possible price for their b. $1,300 goods. Consumers try to get the lowest possible price. c. $1,250 These different goals can affect the price of a product or d. $1,500 service. e. $1,550 When companies make the exact amount of a prod- uct or service at a price that customers are willing to buy, 2. If the market price for cell phone model XLZ they have reached a point of equilibrium. If the price is increased to $1,600, what would be the likely greater than this point, demand drops and there may a result? surplus, which is when there are more goods produced a. Stores would quickly run out of product. than customers are willing to buy. If the price falls below b. Demand would decrease. the point of equilibrium, demand may increase and cre- c. The manufacturer would not be able to keep ate a shortage in supply. up with demand. For example, Company X is introducing a new cell d. The manufacturer would produce the cell phone model, the XLZ. (See the graph on next page.) phone model at the same rate. The business wants to determine the equilibrium point, e. The manufacturer would go out of business. so that it will not have a surplus or shortage of the prod- uct. To cover its costs and make a proﬁt, Company X can supply ten phones for $1,100. As the price increases, the company can offer more phones for sale. However, few 148
– ECONOMICS – Supply and Demand Curves for Cell Phone XLZ 1,900 1,800 Supply 1,700 1,600 Price in dollars 1,500 Equilibrium 1,400 1,300 Demand 1,200 1,100 1,000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Number of phones sold B usiness Cycles R ole of the Government Capitalist economies experience business cycles, periods To avoid inﬂation and unemployment, the U.S. Federal of growth followed by a period of low productivity and Reserve System (“the Fed”) takes measures to keep the income, called a recession. A depression occurs when economy in balance by controlling the supply of money recession lasts for a long period and is severe. During the in the country. One way it does this is by setting the Great Depression in the 1930s, the United States experi- reserve ratio. Every bank that is a member of the Fed enced its worst depression. At that time, large numbers of must keep a reserve—a ratio of its deposits—that is not people suffered unemployment and homelessness. used to make loans. To ﬁght inﬂation, the Fed might set Economic growth is the goal of capitalism. During a a high reserve ratio, so that less money is available in the boom period, companies are able to produce more goods economy. During recession or high unemployment, the and services, and consumers are able to buy more goods Fed might set a low reserve ratio, so there is more money and services. Inﬂation occurs when the amount of money available within the economy. in circulation increases and the amount of consumer The Federal Reserve Board can also affect the nation’s goods (supply) decreases. The dollar drops in value economy by altering the discount rate, which is the inter- and prices increase. Deﬂation happens when the money est rate that the Fed charges banks to borrow money. To supply decreases and the amount of consumer goods make a proﬁt, banks charge their customers a higher increases. Prices are lower, but companies lose proﬁt interest rate than the rate they pay to the Fed. When the and lay off employees, which results in higher rates of Fed sets a high discount rate, banks charge more interest unemployment. on loans, which makes it more difﬁcult for people and businesses to borrow. When the Fed sets a low discount rate, banks charge less, and more people and businesses can afford loans. 149
– ECONOMICS – M easuring Economic Growth E XERCISE 9 Using the graph and passage about the consumer price Economists use different data to study the health of the index, answer the following questions. The answers are economy. They look at stock market trading, the cost of on page 169. living, unemployment rates, and the gross domestic prod- uct (GDP). The GDP measures the total value of goods 1. How much would an urban consumer expect to and services produced within the United States over the pay in 2001 for an item that costs $50 in course of a year. The gross national product (GNP) takes 1982–1984? into account both the GDP and foreign investments. If a. $88 the GNP decreases for two consecutive quarters during b. $100 a year, the economy is considered to be in recession. c. $176 d. $43 Consumer Price Index—All Urban Consumers 1990–2004 190 e. $131 180 2. What conclusion can you make based on the 170 graph? Index: 1982–1984 = 100 a. The CPI tracks price changes for common 160 household expenses. 150 b. The cost of living has decreased in recent years. 140 c. The rate of increase in the cost of living 130 slowed between 1999 and 2000. 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 d. If the cost of living continues to rise, people Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. will move out of the cities. e. The cost of living for city residents steadily The Consumer Price Index (CPI) measures changes in increased between 1990 and 2001. the cost of living. To calculate the CPI, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics tracks changes in prices in common goods and services—food, clothing, rent, fuel, and oth- ers—each year. The graph shows the CPI in all U.S. cities between 1990 and 2001. To make comparisons between years, the graph uses the years 1982–1984 as a base period (1982–1984 = 100). For instance, if the average urban consumer spent $100 on living expenses in 1982–1984, he or she spent more than $150 on the same expenses in 1995. 150
CHAPTER 17 Geography IN THE geography section of the GED, you will be asked to answer questions relating to both physical geography (the features of the Earth’s surface) and cultural geography (the way humans relate to their physical environment). T H E G E O G R A P H Y S E C T I O N of the GED will cover many areas, including topography (landforms), climate, culture, and population distribution. This section will also test your ability to use and understand maps. Many questions will use a photograph, map, chart, table, or other source to present material. P hysical Geography Physical geography studies the features of the Earth’s surface. This branch of geography looks at climate, plant and animal life, bodies of water, and landforms. Maps are the most important tool of geography. Topographical maps give details about land. They show different elevations above and below sea level. Globes and world maps show oceans, seas, and the seven continents of the planet. 151
– GEOGRAPHY – seasonal change—contain the world’s largest rainforests. It also contains savanna and desert climates. Much of Africa, Central America, the Caribbean, South America, Southeast Asia, and India are part of the tropical zone. The temperate zones lie between the tropics and the polar circles. They are characterized by four seasons, usu- ally a hot summer, cold winter, and intermediate spring and fall. Much of North America, Europe, Russia, China, and the Middle East are found in the northern temperate zone. Australia and the southern part of South America fall within the southern temperate zone. The polar or arctic zones are the areas near the north and south pole. This zone is characterized by long, cold win- ters and short, cool summers. The Arctic Circle marks the region near the north pole and the Antarctic Circle marks the area surrounding the south pole. R eading and Understanding Maps Intersecting lines that form a grid help locate speciﬁc C ultural Geography areas on a world map. Lines of latitude run parallel to the equator, an imaginary line that runs east and west. The Cultural geography explores the relationship between equator is at 0° latitude. It divides the globe into two humans and their natural environment. It looks at how halves, called the northern and southern hemispheres. people both adapt to and transform their physical sur- Lines of longitude run parallel to the prime meridian, an roundings to suit their needs. Many aspects of culture— imaginary that runs north and south through Green- a shared way of living among a group of people that wich, England. The prime meridian is at 0° longitude. It develops over time—are inﬂuenced by environment. divides the globe into two halves, called the eastern and Geographers study the belief systems, language, food, western hemispheres. To ﬁnd a speciﬁc location on the architecture, and clothing of particular regions. globe, look for the point where its latitude and longitude They also study population—the size, makeup, and intersect. For example, you can ﬁnd the western portion distribution of people in a given area over a period of of Brazil if you are given its coordinates as 45° west lon- time. This ﬁeld, called demography, looks at changes in gitude and 10° south latitude. population through birth rate, death rate, and migration from one place to another. One major factor affecting where people live is a region’s type of economy. In areas C limate that depend on agriculture for their economy, people generally live in rural areas. In places with an industrial Climate describes the atmosphere of a region over a long economy, urban areas become major population centers. period of time. It includes rainfall, humidity, wind, and In 1950, 29% of the world’s population lived in urban other elements. A region’s climate is most affected by its areas. In 1990, this ﬁgure increased to 43%. latitude. Broad areas, called climatic zones, lie along lati- Today, more than half the world’s population—an tudinal lines between the equator and the north and estimated 6.2 billion—lives in Asia, with China and India south pole. The tropical zone includes all land and water as major contributors. The United States, the third most that falls between two imaginary lines called the Tropic of populous country in the world, makes up less than 5% of Cancer (23.5 north latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn the global total. (23.5 south latitude). The tropics—hot, wet, with little 152
– GEOGRAPHY – E XERCISE 10 Distribution of Use the pie graph and paragraph about world popula- World Population 2002 tion distribution to answer the following question. The answer is on page 169. North America Africa Remaining 5% 14% 1. Which of the following is a statement of fact Asia Latin America 23% rather than opinion? and Caribbean 8% a. The Chinese government should continue its Oceania 0.5% India “one child-one family” policy to curtail its Europe 17% 12% population growth. China 20.5% b. The world population will exceed nine billion people by 2050. c. Three out of ﬁve persons on Earth today live Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Data in Asia. Base. d. The U.S. population will decline in the next century because it is too expensive to live here. The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that the world pop- e. Population growth should be a top concern ulation will reach over nine billion people by 2050, with for all nations. most of the population increase occurring in less devel- oped countries. 153

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