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UNDERSTANDING ENGLISH IDIOMS<br />
FROM THE CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR THEORY<br />
OF COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS<br />
NGUYEN NGOC VU*<br />
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ABSTRACT<br />
Teaching and learning English idioms has always been a challenge for both teachers<br />
and students. From the cognitive linguistics viewpoint, this paper discusses conceptual<br />
metaphor theory and proposes to apply it as an alternative approach to teaching English<br />
idioms. Through the conceptual metaphor analysis of example idioms, the author proves<br />
that idiom meanings are formed from conceptual metaphors rather than dogmatism and<br />
discusses some implications for language teaching.<br />
Keywords: conceptual metaphor theory, English idioms, teaching idioms, cognitive<br />
semantics.<br />
TÓM TẮT<br />
Hiểu thành ngữ tiếng Anh dưới góc nhìn lí thuyết ẩn dụ ý niệm của ngôn ngữ học tri nhận<br />
Việc dạy và học thành ngữ tiếng Anh luôn gây nhiều khó khăn cho cả giáo viên lẫn<br />
học viên. Từ quan điểm của ngôn ngữ học tri nhận, bài báo trình bày thuyết ẩn dụ ý niệm<br />
và đề xuất áp dụng lí thuyết này để dạy các tổ hợp thành ngữ tiếng Anh. Qua việc phân<br />
tích ẩn dụ ý niệm ở một số thành ngữ minh họa, tác giả chứng minh rằng nghĩa của thành<br />
ngữ được tạo thành từ các ẩn dụ ý niệm chứ không phải có tính võ đoán và trình bày<br />
những đề xuất cho việc giảng dạy tiếng Anh.<br />
Từ khóa: lí thuyết ẩn dụ ý niệm, thành ngữ tiếng Anh, giảng dạy thành ngữ, ngữ<br />
nghĩa học tri nhận.<br />
<br />
Introduction have attracted attention of researchers<br />
In most textbooks for students of from many different disciplines like<br />
intermediate or higher levels, it is clear literature, ethnography and culturology.<br />
that composite expressions account for (Langlotz, 2006). All of this starts from a<br />
quite a big number of lexical items that new view to the role of idioms in<br />
students need to learn (Achard & language teaching and translation.<br />
Niemeier, 2004). This is easy to Previously, with the generative approach,<br />
understand as in order to communicate it is believed that language is a system<br />
effectively and naturally, language that can be explained using universal<br />
learners need to be able to master English rules. However, there is more and more<br />
idioms (Gibbs, 1997). Due to their evidence showing that the mastery of a<br />
importance in language teaching, idioms foreign language depends on one’s ability<br />
to master composite expressions called<br />
*<br />
Ph.D, in Linguistics, Dean of English “prefabricated units” or “prefabs”. This<br />
Department-HCMC University of Education article discusses how language teachers<br />
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can help their students learn idioms more cognitively. Hot steam has the power to<br />
efficiently through the conceptual move the engines. By letting off the<br />
metaphor theory steam, one’s anger is gradually cooling<br />
Conceptual Metaphor Theory down. By activating one’s real world<br />
From the viewpoint of cognitive experience of steam and understanding<br />
theorists, metaphor is defined as a the conceptual metaphor mechanism, he<br />
domain through which abstract human or she can predict idiom’s meanings.<br />
experiences from the outside world are Current practice in teaching and<br />
conceptualized based on more concrete learning idioms<br />
experiences. Lakoff & Johnson (1980) Many learners of English develop<br />
states that lots of our mental experiences the habit of learning by heart the<br />
are created with metaphor via a limited equivalents of idioms in their mother<br />
set of image schemas, for example the tongue and then use those in<br />
image schema of a container. This communication. When teaching English<br />
‘container’ image schema is created by in Vietnam, we have observed learners<br />
our real 3D world experience of a who own good command of English but<br />
container having the inside and outside have difficulties using English idioms<br />
space. Through his research, Lakoff has and phrasal verbs. Consequently, they<br />
found out that the ‘container’ image tend to avoid using idioms when<br />
schema has been used frequently to producing the language and this makes<br />
conceptualize non-spatial concepts. their language sound unnatural. This<br />
Emotion, which is non-spatial, can be problem was also mentioned by Moon<br />
conceptualized as a container when we (1997:60): “… language learners often<br />
say “empty words” or “to be in love”. avoid using composite expressions even<br />
At its basic level, conceptual in situations where the two languages<br />
metaphor is the motivation for many have very similar expressions … The<br />
idiomatic structures. For example, “to let cause of this is language learners are<br />
off steam” can be split into two concerned about expressions considered<br />
components “let off” and “steam”. Its equal between languages. They were<br />
dictionary meaning can be to let out or to taught to be careful about the small<br />
show one’s anger. According to the differences that can lead to confusion or<br />
analysis of Lakoff & Johnson (1980), misunderstanding.”<br />
anger is often understood metaphorically Teachers also tend to avoid<br />
as follows: teaching English idioms although these<br />
- Mind is a container expressions are important for developing<br />
- Anger is a hot fluid in a container. language capability in learners. Some<br />
In the case of “to let off steam”, the teachers believe that idioms are too<br />
mapping from literal meaning of ‘steam’ difficult for learners. Evidence for this<br />
to illiteral meaning of ‘anger’ is possible can be found in many language teaching<br />
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textbooks which only show a list of those in the coursebook. Obviously, with<br />
idioms grouped by themes or key words this way of learning idioms, learners will<br />
and then come gap-filling exercises for quickly forget what they have learnt and<br />
learners. That way of task designing only can’t use the idioms effectively in actual<br />
encourages students to learn by heart contexts.<br />
idioms’ meaning from the context in Solutions from conceptual<br />
which they occur. Students will not be metaphor theory<br />
able to understand how those idioms Research from conceptual metaphor<br />
were formed or use them in real contexts theory shows that images grounded<br />
when the contexts are different from what deeply in idioms can be activated by<br />
they have in the textbook. Sometimes, making learners understand the<br />
textbook also tries to provide learners underlying conceptual metaphor and<br />
with synonyms but they are not quite trace back to idioms’ origin. Vu (2006)<br />
equal and can be confusing. For example, showed that the meaning of many idioms,<br />
in Unit 10 of Grammar Practice textbook especially those of body part idioms are<br />
used by Department of English, HCM motivated rather than abstract.<br />
city University of Education, ‘fill in’ was Consequently, in order to teach idioms<br />
explained using examples as follows: effectively, teachers should not only ask<br />
• Can you fill in this form please? students to learn by heart. Instead, they<br />
(complete) should encourage students to predict the<br />
• Our teacher was ill, so Mrs. Frost origins of idioms and then help them to<br />
filled in. (take someone’s place) find out the illiterate meaning based on<br />
Then the textbook introduces that finding. For instance, when teaching<br />
phrasal verb “take over” as follows: the idiom ‘To be on the ropes’, the<br />
• A German company took us over teacher should first ask this question:<br />
last year. (buy a company). “Where do you think the expression “to<br />
• If you are tired, I’ll take over. (take be on the ropes” comes from? Sports,<br />
someone’s place) food or sailing?” Most of the students<br />
This way of explaining idioms will choose ‘sports’ or ‘sailing’ since<br />
makes students believe that ‘fill in’ and ropes are only used in these two domains.<br />
‘take over’ can be used interchangeably. The teacher can then explain the cultural<br />
However, they are used in completely and historical origin to help learners<br />
different contexts. In the current teaching associate with a specific situation. In this<br />
context of Vietnam, it’s very hard for case for instance, students associate with<br />
learners to contact native speakers and the image of a boxer rounded to the<br />
ask them to explain idioms’ origins. corner and having to use the rope as point<br />
Therefore, they can only learn by heart of support. From this hint, students will<br />
the equivalent meanings in Vietnamese be able to infer that ‘to be on the ropes’<br />
and use them in situations similar to means to be put on the wall or to be in a<br />
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desperate situation. Problem solving • I'll keep an ear to the ground and<br />
activities like this force students to think tell you if I hear of any vacancies.<br />
and thus memorize and use the idioms • I had half an ear on the radio as he<br />
better. was talking to me.<br />
Besides, explicit explanation of However, if the teacher explains to<br />
conceptual metaphors can also help students that these idioms are motivated<br />
students infer idioms’ meaning to a great by the metonymy “the ears stand for<br />
extent. From our previous research (Vu, attention”, chance of getting students to<br />
2008a), it’s not very fruitful making infer the meaning will rise up. This was<br />
students infer idioms’ meaning only. In confirmed in another research on<br />
our research on idioms containing ‘ears’ applying conceptual metaphor and<br />
(Vu, 2008b), it was found out that it was metonymy to teaching idioms and<br />
very hard for students to automatically proverbs of Thomas Li (2002, cited in<br />
identify the proper conceptual metaphor Robinson & Ellis 2008). In his research,<br />
for decoding idioms’ meaning. In order Li conducted an experiment on 394<br />
to help students do that, teachers need to foreign language students in China. The<br />
give students direct instruction on experimental group was given instruction<br />
underlying conceptual metaphors or on conceptual metaphor and metonymy<br />
metonymies that motivate those idioms. theories as well as how to use them in<br />
In the following idioms, if the teachers decoding idioms’ meaning. Post-test<br />
simply give examples and ask students to results showed that the experimental<br />
infer meaning, their students will have a group outperformed the controlled group<br />
lot of difficulties: in learning English idioms.<br />
• Don't talk so loudly unless you In English, there are many two or<br />
want everyone to know. Bill has big ears three word verbs, also called phrasal<br />
you know. verbs. In advanced language tests like<br />
• Hey, cloth ears, I asked if you Toefl, Cambridge CAE or CPE, those<br />
wanted a drink. phrasal verbs appear with high frequency.<br />
• Warnings that sunbathing can lead Currently available grammar books and<br />
to skin cancer have largely fallen on deaf other textbooks do no more than<br />
ears in Britain. encouraging learners to memorize.<br />
• 'Do you want to hear what Streamline English Directions is a good<br />
happened at the party last night?' 'Oh yes, example of mechanical drilling and<br />
I'm all ears'. practice. Almost all units in the textbook<br />
• In the past they've tended to turn a come with a list of phrasal verbs and gap-<br />
deaf ear to such requests. filling exercises for learners to work on.<br />
• He's a powerful industrialist who These phrasal verbs are grouped in terms<br />
has the President's ear. of verbs (take, give, look …) or in terms<br />
of particles (up, down, on …). The aim of<br />
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these practice exercises is to drill and • Turn down that horrible music!<br />
help learners memorize the idioms. • Please keep the noise down in this<br />
However, from classroom observation, room!<br />
students tend to forget these items after • It's really cooled down these past<br />
several weeks. In the department of few days.<br />
English, HCM city University of • Computer prices have really come<br />
Education, many students used to attend down recently.<br />
national English exams for the gifted. As In the above examples, particles<br />
the exams always have large number of “up” and “down” are always associated<br />
phrasal verbs, these students tried to with increase or decrease in size, number<br />
memorize a lot of these phrasal verbs. or strength. As a result, teachers only<br />
However, most of them complained that need to explain to the students how<br />
they would forget many of those items conceptual metaphor “MORE IS UP –<br />
after several years. All of this comes LESS IS DOWN” works and provide<br />
from rote learning encouraged by some examples instead of making<br />
teachers and textbooks. Research on students learn by heart. Besides, when<br />
conceptual metaphor theory (Vu, 2008) armed with knowledge of that conceptual<br />
has given strong evidence that idioms’ metaphor, students are more likely to<br />
meaning is grounded in conceptual infer meanings of other phrasal verbs<br />
metaphors. For instance, all of these formed with “up” and “down”.<br />
phrasal verbs are motivated by the In a similar way, temporal<br />
conceptual metaphor “MORE IS UP – conceptual metaphor starts from our<br />
LESS IS DOWN”: conventional conception of time as a<br />
• They put up the price on that model straight line running from the past to the<br />
by five dollars. future with the past in the back and the<br />
• They brought their children up in future in the front. As a result, phrasal<br />
the countryside. verbs with “ahead” and “forward” are<br />
• Production went up at the plant by used to talk about future while those with<br />
15 percent. “back” and “behind” are used to refer to<br />
• The car sped up and passed the the past. With such understanding of<br />
slow driver. conceptual metaphor “FUTURE IS<br />
• It's really heated up these past few AHEAD – PAST IS BEHIND”, students<br />
days. can predict meaning of the following<br />
• Can you turn the sound up? idioms:<br />
• The local economy has really • What lies ahead?<br />
picked up since the new factory was • Let's think ahead to next season.<br />
built. • I'm looking forward to seeing them<br />
• The quarterly profits went down again.<br />
from the second to the third quarter.<br />
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• I've put my watch forward one idiom categories that are cultural-<br />
hour. specific. In several cases, due to the<br />
• The house dates back to the 16th difference inside the source domain due<br />
century. to cultural gaps, students will find it<br />
• Never look back, never have much harder to decode idiomatic<br />
regrets. meaning. As a result, background cultural<br />
• She was trying to leave behind a knowledge that teachers provide for the<br />
difficult adolescence. students will help considerably. For<br />
When somebody has power or example, most Vietnamese students find<br />
control over other people, we think about it hard to understand why English people<br />
that person as being in a higher position. say “as pleasant as a summer breeze”<br />
Therefore, phrasal verbs with “over” and since in Vietnam, summer is very hot,<br />
“up” express the idea of somebody humid and uncomfortable. Cultural<br />
having control or more power than other knowledge is the key in this case.<br />
people. In contrast, phrasal verbs with England is in the temperate zone with<br />
“down” and “under” are about people cold weather most of the year. For<br />
being controlled or in weakness. With the English people, summer is the best<br />
conceptual metaphor “POWER IS season associated with warmth and<br />
OVER/UP – WEAKNESS IS enjoyable outdoor activities. Temperature<br />
UNDER/DOWN”, teachers can help in summer in England is usually more or<br />
students infer meaning of the following less 200 C, which is ‘cold’ for many<br />
expressions: Vietnamese. If Vietnamese students<br />
• He was lording it over me. understand this, they will find the<br />
• The Emperor ruled over a vast area. expression “as pleasant as a summer<br />
breeze” does make sense.<br />
• They have come up in the world.<br />
Summary<br />
• She's been moved up to a more<br />
If the underlying conceptual<br />
responsible job.<br />
structures that motivate idioms’ meaning<br />
• The police clamped down on<br />
are explained, it is more likely that<br />
drinking in the streets.<br />
language learners infer the meaning and<br />
• The rebellion was swiftly put down.<br />
retain it longer. This contrasts with the<br />
• Prisoners are kept under constant common view held by language teachers<br />
surveillance. and textbook writers that idioms’<br />
• We had to knuckle under and do meaning can’t be predicted and they must<br />
what we were told. be learned as a whole in their context.<br />
Apart from making students aware However, context alone is not helpful for<br />
of conceptual metaphor and metonymy to students and it does not help them to<br />
infer idiomatic meaning, teachers should retain what they have learnt. From the<br />
also provide background cultural examples given, it is shown that explicit<br />
knowledge. This is especially useful for<br />
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teaching of underlying conceptual diverse and rich outside world.<br />
metaphors that motivate idioms’ meaning Consequently, once teachers and students<br />
not only leads to better learning but also focus on exploring those structures, they<br />
makes learning idioms more interesting. are doing an interesting exploration<br />
Idioms, in nature, are structures formed journey themselves.<br />
through men’s conceptualizing of the<br />
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REFERENCES<br />
1. Achard, M., & Niemeier, S. (2004), Cognitive linguistics, second language<br />
acquisition, and foreign language teaching, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.<br />
2. Gibbs, R. W. (1997), “Idioms and mental imagery: the metaphorical motivation for<br />
idiomatic meaning”, Cognition, vol 36.<br />
3. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980), Metaphor We Live By, Chicago: The University of<br />
Chicago Press.<br />
4. Langlotz, A. (2006), Idiomatic Creativity: A cognitive-linguistic model of idiom-<br />
representation and idiom-variation in English, Philadelphia: John Benjamins<br />
Publishing Company.<br />
5. Moon, R. (1997), Vocabulary Connections: Multi-Word Items in English. In N.<br />
Schmitt & M. J. McCarthy (eds), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and<br />
Pedagogy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />
6. Nguyễn Ngọc Vũ (2006), “Về một cách giải thích nghĩa của thành ngữ từ góc độ<br />
ngôn ngữ học tri nhận”, Kỉ yếu Hội thảo Ngôn ngữ học trẻ, Nxb Đại học Sư phạm Hà<br />
Nội, Hà Nội.<br />
7. Nguyễn Ngọc Vũ (2008), “Hoán dụ ý niệm “Bộ phận cơ thể người biểu trưng cho sự<br />
chú ý” trong thành ngữ chứa yếu tố “mắt”, “mũi” và “tai” tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt”,<br />
Tạp chí Ngôn Ngữ, (9).<br />
8. Robinson, P., & Ellis, N. C. (2008). Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second<br />
language acquisition. New York: Routledge.<br />
(Received: 29/8/2011; Accepted: 26/9/2011)<br />
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