OCA: Oracle Database 11g Administrator Certified Associate Study Guide- P6

Chia sẻ: Thanh Cong | Ngày: | Loại File: PDF | Số trang:50

Thêm vào BST

Báo xấu

143
lượt xem 37
download

Download Vui lòng tải xuống để xem tài liệu đầy đủ

OCA: Oracle Database 11g Administrator Certified Associate Study Guide- P6: There is high demand for professionals in the information technology (IT) industry, and Oracle certifications are the hottest credential in the database world. You have made the right decision to pursue certification, because being Oracle Database 11g certified will give you a distinct advantage in this highly competitive market.

Chủ đề:

Bình luận(0) Đăng nhập để gửi bình luận!

Lưu

Nội dung Text: OCA: Oracle Database 11g Administrator Certified Associate Study Guide- P6

Utilizing Aggregate Functions 181 F single 47 M single 92 married 180 F married 63 M married 117 more Dba Queries In the “Exploring DBA Queries Using Aggregate Functions” sidebar, you saw some que- ries written to find out the space allocated by tablespace, the space allocated by schema, and the space allocated by tablespace and schema. These were written using three dif- ferent SQL statements. You can see the power of CUBE in the following SQL. The results from all the three SQL statements you tried before are in this summary report, showing the different levels of aggregation. SELECT tablespace_name, owner, SUM(bytes)/1048576 size_mb FROM dba_segments GROUP BY CUBE (tablespace_name, owner); TABLESPACE_NAME OWNER SIZE_MB ----------------- --------------- ---------- 1564.8125
182 Chapter 3 N Using Group Functions SYSTEM OUTLN .5625 SYSTEM SYSTEM 15.875 EXAMPLE 77.3125 EXAMPLE HR 1.5625 … … … As you can see in the result, the space used by each schema in each tablespace is shown as well as the total space used in each tablespace and the total space used by each schema. The total space used in the database (including all tablespaces) is also shown in the very first line. Three functions come in handy with the ROLLUP and CUBE modifiers of the GROUP BY clause— GROUPING, GROUP_ID, and GROUPING_ID. In the examples you have seen using the ROLLUP and CUBE modifiers, there was no way of telling which row is a subtotal and which row is a grand total. You can use the GROUPING function to overcome this problem. Review the following SQL example: SELECT gender, marital_status, count(*) num_rec, GROUPING (gender) g_grp, GROUPING (marital_status) ms_grp FROM oe.customers GROUP BY CUBE(marital_status, gender); G MARITAL_STATUS NUM_REC G_GRP MS_GRP - -------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 319 1 1 F 110 0 1 M 209 0 1 single 139 1 0 F single 47 0 0 M single 92 0 0 married 180 1 0 F married 63 0 0 M married 117 0 0 The G_GRP column has a 1 for NULL values generated by the CUBE or ROLLUP modifier for GENDER column. Similarly, the MS_GRP column has a 1 when NULL values are generated in the MARITAL_STATUS column. Using a DECODE function on the result of the GROUPING function, you can produce a more meaningful result set, as in the following example: SELECT DECODE(GROUPING (gender), 1, ‘Multi-Gender’, gender) gender, DECODE(GROUPING (marital_status), 1,
Utilizing Aggregate Functions 183 ‘Multi-MaritalStatus’, marital_status) marital_status, count(*) num_rec FROM oe.customers GROUP BY CUBE(marital_status, gender); GENDER MARITAL_STATUS NUM_REC ------------ -------------------- ---------- Multi-Gender Multi-MaritalStatus 319 F Multi-MaritalStatus 110 M Multi-MaritalStatus 209 Multi-Gender single 139 F single 47 M single 92 Multi-Gender married 180 F married 63 M married 117 You can use the GROUPING function in the HAVING clause to filter out rows. You can display only the summary results using the GROUPING function in the HAVING clause. The GROUPING_ID function returns the exact level of the group. It is derived from the GROUPING function by concatenating the GROUPING levels together as bits, and gives the GROUPING_ID. Review the following example closely to understand this: SELECT gender, marital_status, count(*) num_rec, GROUPING (gender) g_grp, GROUPING (marital_status) ms_grp, GROUPING_ID (gender, marital_status) groupingid FROM oe.customers GROUP BY CUBE(gender, marital_status); G MARITAL_STATUS NUM_REC G_GRP MS_GRP GROUPINGID - -------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 319 1 1 3 single 139 1 0 2 married 180 1 0 2 F 110 0 1 1 F single 47 0 0 0 F married 63 0 0 0 M 209 0 1 1 M single 92 0 0 0 M married 117 0 0 0
184 Chapter 3 N Using Group Functions In this example, you can clearly identify the level of grouping using the GROUPING_ID function. The GROUP_ID function is used to distinguish the duplicate groups. In the follow- ing example, the GROUP_ID() value is 1 for duplicate groups. When writing complex aggre- gates, you can filter out the duplicate rows by using the HAVING GROUP_ID = 0 clause in the SELECT statement. SELECT gender, marital_status, count(*) num_rec, GROUPING_ID (gender, marital_status) groupingid, GROUP_ID() groupid FROM oe.customers GROUP BY gender, CUBE(gender, marital_status); G MARITAL_STATUS NUM_REC GROUPINGID GROUPID - -------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- F single 47 0 0 F married 63 0 0 M single 92 0 0 M married 117 0 0 F single 47 0 1 F married 63 0 1 M single 92 0 1 M married 117 0 1 F 110 1 0 M 209 1 0 F 110 1 1 M 209 1 1 Nesting Functions Functions can be nested so that the output from one function is used as input to another. Operators have an inherent precedence of execution such as * before +, but function precedence is based on position only. Functions are evaluated innermost to outermost and left to right. This nesting technique is common with some functions, such as DECODE (covered in Chapter 2), where it can be used to implement limited IF…THEN…ELSE logic within a SQL statement. For example, the V$SYSSTAT view contains one row for each of three interesting sort statistics. If you want to report all three statistics on a single line, you can use DECODE com- bined with SUM to filter out data in the SELECT clause. This filtering operation is usually done in the WHERE or HAVING clause, but if you want all three statistics on one line, you can issue this command: SELECT SUM (DECODE (name,’sorts (memory)’,value,0)) in_memory,
Utilizing Aggregate Functions 185 SUM (DECODE (name,’sorts (disk)’, value,0)) on_disk, SUM (DECODE (name,’sorts (rows)’, value,0)) rows_sorted FROM v$sysstat; IN_MEMORY ON_DISK ROWS_SORTED --------- ------- ----------- 728 12 326714 What happens in the previous statement is a single pass through the V$SYSSTAT table. The presummary result set would have the same number of rows as V$SYSSTAT (232, for instance). Of these 232 rows, all rows and columns have zeros, except for one row in each column that has the data of interest. Table 3.3 shows the data that was used in this example. The summation operation then adds all the zeros to your interesting data and gives you the results you want. ta b l e 3 . 3 Presummarized Result Set in_memory on_disk rows_sorted 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 326714 728 0 0 0 0 0 Nesting Single-Row Functions with Group Functions Nested functions can include single-row functions nested within group functions, as you’ve just seen, or group functions nested within either single-row functions or other group func- tions. For example, suppose you need to report on the departments in the EMP table, show- ing either the number of jobs or the number of managers, whichever is greater. You would enter the following: SELECT deptno, GREATEST( COUNT(DISTINCT job), COUNT(DISTINCT mgr)) cnt, COUNT(DISTINCT job) jobs,
186 Chapter 3 N Using Group Functions COUNT(DISTINCT mgr) mgrs FROM scott.emp GROUP BY deptno; DEPTNO CNT JOBS MGRS ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 10 3 3 2 20 4 3 4 30 3 3 2 Nesting Group Functions You can also nest group functions within group functions. Only one level of nesting is allowed when nesting a group function within a group function. To report the maximum number of jobs in a single department, you would query the following: SELECT MAX(COUNT (DISTINCT job_id)) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id; MAX(COUNT(DISTINCTJOB_ID)) -------------------------- 3 Group functions can be nested only one level. If you try to nest more than one level of nested group functions, you will encounter an error. Also, there is no reason to do so. Here is an example to show the error, though the SQL does not mean much: SELECT MIN (MAX (COUNT (DISTINCT job_id))) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id; SELECT MIN (MAX (COUNT (DISTINCT job_id))) * ERROR at line 1: ORA-00935: group function is nested too deeply
Exam Essentials 187 Summary Though this chapter is small in terms of OCA certification exam content, this chapter is very important for the test. It is important to understand the concept of grouping data, where GROUP BY and HAVING clauses can be used, and the rules associated with using these clauses. I started this chapter by discussing the group-function fundamentals and reviewed the group functions by concentrating on the functions that are important for the test. I also discussed how group functions can be used in the SELECT, HAVING, and ORDER BY clauses of SELECT statements. Most group functions can be applied to all data values or only to the distinct data values. Except for COUNT(*), group functions ignore NULLs. Pro- grammer-written functions cannot be used as group functions. COUNT, SUM, and AVG are the most commonly used group functions. When using group functions or aggregate functions in a query, the columns that do not have any aggregate function applied to them must appear in the GROUP BY clause of the query. The HAVING clause is used to filter out data after the aggregates are calculated. Group func- tions cannot be used in the WHERE clause. You can create superaggregates using the CUBE and ROLLUP modifiers in the GROUP BY clause. Exam Essentials Understand the usage of DISTINCT in group functions. When DISTINCT is specified, only one of each non- NULL value is applied to the function. To apply all non- NULL values, the keyword ALL should be used. Know where group functions can be used. Group functions can be used in GROUP BY, ORDER BY, and HAVING clauses. They cannot be used in WHERE clauses. Know how MIN and MAX sort date and character data. Older dates evaluate to lower values, while newer dates evaluate to higher values. Character data, even if it contains numbers, is sorted according to the NLS_SORT specification. Know which expressions in a SELECT list must appear in a GROUP BY clause. If any group- ing is performed, all nongroup function expressions and nonconstant expressions must appear in the GROUP BY clause. Know the order of precedence for evaluating nested functions. You may need to evalu- ate an expression containing nested functions. Make sure you understand the left-to-right order of precedence used to evaluate these expressions.
188 Review Questions Review Questions 1. How will the results of the following two statements differ? Statement 1: SELECT MAX(longitude), MAX(latitude) FROM zip_state_city; Statement 2: SELECT MAX(longitude), MAX(latitude) FROM zip_state_city GROUP BY state; A. Statement 1 will fail because it is missing a GROUP BY clause. B. Statement 2 will return one row, and statement 1 may return more than one row. C. Statement 2 will fail because it does not have the columns used in the GROUP BY clause in the SELECT clause. D. Statement 1 will display two columns, and statement 2 will display two values for each state. 2. Using the SALES table described here, you need to report the following: NÛ Gross, net, and earned revenue for the second and third quarters of 1999 NÛ Gross, net, and earned revenue for sales in the states of Illinois, California, and Texas (codes IL, CA, and TX) Column Name state_code sales_date gross net earned Key Type PK PK Nulls/Unique NN NN NN NN NN FK Table Datatype VARCHAR2 DATE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER Length 2 11,2 11,2 11,2 Will all the requirements be met with the following SQL statement? SELECT state_code, SUM(ALL gross), SUM(net), SUM(earned) FROM sales_detail WHERE TRUNC(sales_date,’Q’) BETWEEN TO_DATE(’01-Apr-1999’,’DD-Mon-YYYY’) AND TO_DATE(’01-Sep-1999’,’DD-Mon-YYYY’) AND state_cd IN (’IL’,’CA’,’TX’) GROUP BY state_code;
Review Questions 189 A. The statement meets all three requirements. B. The statement meets two of the three requirements. C. The statement meets one of the three requirements. D. The statement meets none of the three requirements. E. The statement will raise an exception. 3. Which line in the following SQL has an error? 1 SELECT department_id, SUM(salary) 2 FROM employees 3 WHERE department_id 40 4 ORDER BY department_id; A. 1 B. 3 C. 4 D. No errors in SQL 4. John is trying to find out the average salary of employees in each department. He noticed that the SALARY column can have NULL values, and he does not want the NULLs included when calculating the average. Identify the correct SQL that will produce the desired results. A. SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id; B. SELECT department_id, AVG(NVL(salary,0)) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id; C. SELECT department_id, NVL(AVG(salary), 0) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id; D. SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id HAVING salary IS NOT NULL;
190 Review Questions 5. Review the following two SQL statements, and choose the appropriate option. 1. SELECT department_id, COUNT(*) FROM employees HAVING COUNT(*) > 10 GROUP BY department_id; 2. SELECT department_id, COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE COUNT(*) > 10 GROUP BY department_id; A. Statement 1 and statement 2 will produce the same results. B. Statement 1 will succeed, and statement 2 will fail. C. Statement 2 will succeed, and statement 1 will fail. D. Both statements fail. 6. Read the following SQL carefully, and choose the appropriate option. The JOB_ID column shows the various jobs. SELECT MAX(COUNT(*)) FROM employees GROUP BY job_id, department_id; A. Aggregate functions cannot be nested. B. The columns in the GROUP BY clause must appear in the SELECT clause for the query to work. C. The GROUP BY clause is not required in this query. D. The SQL will produce the highest number of jobs within a department. 7. Identify the SQL that produces the correct result. A. SELECT department_id, SUM(salary) FROM employees WHERE department_id 50 GROUP BY department_id HAVING COUNT(*) > 30; B. SELECT department_id, SUM(salary) sum_sal FROM employees WHERE department_id 50 GROUP BY department_id HAVING sum_sal > 3000;
Review Questions 191 C. SELECT department_id, SUM(salary) sum_sal FROM employees WHERE department_id 50 AND sum_sal > 3000 GROUP BY department_id; D. SELECT department_id, SUM(salary) FROM employees WHERE department_id 50 AND SUM(salary) > 3000 GROUP BY department_id; 8. Consider the following SQL, and choose the most appropriate option. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SUBSTR(first_name, 1,1)) FROM employees; A. A single-row function nested inside a group function is not allowed. B. The GROUP BY clause is required to successfully run this query. C. Removing the DISTINCT qualifier will fix the error in the query. D. The query will execute successfully without any modification. 9. The sales order number (ORDER_NO) is the primary key in the table SALES_ORDERS. Which query will return the total number of orders in the SALES_ORDERS table? A. SELECT COUNT(ALL order_no) FROM sales_orders; B. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT order_no) FROM sales_orders; C. SELECT COUNT(order_no) FROM sales_orders; D. SELECT COUNT(NVL(order_no,0) FROM sales_orders; E. All of the above F. A and C 10. Sheila wants to find the highest salary within each department of the EMPLOYEES table. Which query will help her get what she wants? A. SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees; B. SELECT MAX(salary BY department_id) FROM employees; C. SELECT department_id, MAX(salary) max_sal FROM employees; D. SELECT department_id, MAX(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department_ id; E. SELECT department_id, MAX(salary) FROM employees USING department_id;
192 Review Questions 11. Which assertion about the following queries is true? SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT mgr), MAX(DISTINCT salary) FROM emp; SELECT COUNT(ALL mgr), MAX(ALL salary) FROM emp; A. They will always return the same numbers in columns 1 and 2. B. They may return different numbers in column 1 but will always return the same num- ber in column 2. C. They may return different numbers in both columns 1 and 2. D. They will always return the same number in column 1 but may return different num- bers in column 2. 12. Which clauses in the SELECT statement can use single-row functions nested in aggregate functions? (Choose all that apply.) A. SELECT B. ORDER BY C. WHERE D. GROUP BY 13. Consider the following two SQL statements. Choose the most appropriate option. 1. select substr(first_name, 1,1) fn, SUM(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY first_name; 2. select substr(first_name, 1,1) fn, SUM(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY substr(first_name, 1,1); A. Statement 1 and 2 will produce the same result. B. Statement 1 and 2 will produce different results. C. Statement 1 will fail. D. Statement 2 will fail, but statement 1 will succeed. 14. How will the results of the following two SQL statements differ? Statement 1: SELECT COUNT(*), SUM(salary) FROM hr.employees; Statement 2: SELECT COUNT(salary), SUM(salary) FROM hr.employees;
Review Questions 193 A. Statement 1 will return one row, and statement 2 may return more than one row. B. Both statements will fail because they are missing a GROUP BY clause. C. Both statements will return the same results. D. Statement 2 may return a smaller COUNT value than statement 1. 15. Why does the following SELECT statement fail? SELECT colorname Colour, MAX(cost) FROM itemdetail WHERE UPPER(colorname) LIKE ‘%WHITE%’ GROUP BY colour HAVING COUNT(*) > 20; A. A GROUP BY clause cannot contain a column alias. B. The condition COUNT(*) > 20 should be in the WHERE clause. C. The GROUP BY clause must contain the group functions used in the SELECT list. D. The HAVING clause can contain only the group functions used in the SELECT list. 16. What will the following SQL statement return? select max(prod_pack_size) from sh.products where min(prod_weight_class) = 5; A. An exception will be raised. B. The largest PROD_PACK_SIZE for rows containing PROD_WEIGHT_CLASS of 5 or higher C. The largest PROD_PACK_SIZE for rows containing PROD_WEIGHT_CLASS of 5 D. The largest PROD_PACK_SIZE in the SH.PRODUCTS table 17. Why will the following query raise an exception? select dept_no, avg(distinct salary), count(job) job_count from emp where mgr like ‘J%’ or abs(salary) > 10 having count(job) > 5 order by 2 desc; A. The HAVING clause cannot contain a group function. B. The GROUP BY clause is missing. C. ABS() is not an Oracle function. D. The query will not raise an exception.
194 Review Questions 18. Which clause will generate an error when the following query is executed? SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) avg_sal FROM employees GROUP BY department_id HAVING TRUNC(department_id) > 50; A. The GROUP BY clause, because it is missing the group function. B. The HAVING clause, because single-row functions cannot be used. C. The HAVING clause, because the AVG function used in the SELECT clause is not used in the HAVING clause. D. None of the above. The SQL statement will not return an error. 19. Which statements are true? (Choose all that apply.) A. A group function can be used only if the GROUP BY clause is present. B. Group functions along with nonaggregated columns can appear in the SELECT clause as long as a GROUP BY clause and a HAVING clause are present. C. The HAVING clause is optional when the GROUP BY clause is used. D. The HAVING clause and the GROUP BY clause are mutually exclusive; you can use only one clause in a SELECT statement. 20. Read the following two statements, and choose the best option. 1. HAVING clause should always appear after the GROUP BY clause. 2. GROUP BY clause should always appear after the WHERE clause. A. Statement 1 and 2 are false. B. Statement 1 is true, and statement 2 is false. C. Statement 1 is false, and statement 2 is true. D. Statements 1 and 2 are true.
Answers to Review Questions 195 Answers to Review Questions 1. D. Though you do not have a state column in the SELECT clause, having it in the GROUP BY clause will group the results by state, so you end up getting two values (two columns) for each state. 2. A. All requirements are met. The gross-, net-, and earned-revenue requirements are satis- fied with the SELECT clause. The second- and third-quarter sales requirement is satisfied with the first predicate of the WHERE clause—the sales date will be truncated to the first day of a quarter; thus, 01-Apr-1999 or 01-Jul-1999 for the required quarters (which are both between 01-Apr-1999 and 01-Sep-1999). The state codes requirement is satisfied by the second predicate in the WHERE clause. This question is intentionally misleading, but so are some exam questions (and, unfortunately, some of the code in some shops). 3. C. Since the department_id column does not have any aggregate function applied to it, it must appear in the GROUP BY clause. The ORDER BY clause in the SQL must be replaced with a GROUP BY clause to make the query work. 4. A. Since group functions do not include NULL values in their calculation, you do not have to do anything special to exclude the NULL values. Only COUNT(*) includes NULL values. 5. B. An aggregate function is not allowed in the WHERE clause. You can have the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses in any order, but they must appear after the WHERE clause. 6. D. The SQL will work fine and produce the result. Since group functions are nested, a GROUP BY clause is required. 7. A. It is perfectly alright to have one function in the SELECT clause and another function in the HAVING clause of the query. Options B and C are trying to use the alias name, which is not allowed. Option D has a group function in the WHERE clause, which is also not allowed. 8. D. The query will return how many distinct alphabets are used to begin names in the EMPLOYEES table. You can nest a group function inside a single-row function, and vice versa. 9. E. All the queries will return the same result. Since ORDER_NO is the primary key, there cannot be NULL values in the column. Hence, ALL and DISTINCT will give the same result. 10. D. Option A will display the highest salary of all the employees. Options B and E use invalid syntax keywords. Option C does not have a GROUP BY clause. 11. B. The first column in the first query is counting the distinct MGR values in the table. The first column in the second query is counting all MGR values in the table. If a manager appears twice, the first query will count her one time, but the second will count her twice. Both the first query and the second query are selecting the maximum salary value in the table. 12. A, B. A group function is not allowed in GROUP BY or WHERE clauses, whether you use it as nested or not.
196 Chapter 3 N Using Group Functions 13. B. Both statements are valid. The first statement will produce the number of rows equal to the number of unique first_name values. The second statement will produce the number of rows equal to the unique number of first characters in the first_name column. 14. D. COUNT(*) will count all rows in the table. COUNT(salary) will count only the number of salary values that appear in the table. If there are any rows with a NULL salary, state- ment 2 will not count them. 15. A. A GROUP BY clause must contain the column or expressions on which to perform the grouping operation. It cannot use column aliasing. 16. A. You cannot place a group function in the WHERE clause. Instead, you should use a HAVING clause. 17. B. There is at least one column in the SELECT list that is not a constant or group function, so a GROUP BY clause is mandatory. 18. D. The HAVING clause filters data after the group function is applied. If an aggregate func- tion is not used in the HAVING clause, the column used must be part of the SELECT clause. 19. C. The HAVING clause can be used in a SELECT statement only if the GROUP BY clause is present. The optional HAVING clause filters data after the rows are summarized. 20. C. The GROUP BY and HAVING clauses can appear in any order in the SELECT clause. If a WHERE clause is present, it must be before the GROUP BY clause.
Chapter Using Joins and 4 Subqueries Oracle DatabaSe 11g: SQl FUnDamentalS I exam ObJectIveS cOvereD In thIS chapter Displaying data from multiple tables ÛÛ NÛ Write SELECT statements to access data from more than one table using equijoins and nonequijoins NÛ Join a table to itself by using a self-join NÛ View data that generally does not meet a join condition by using outer joins NÛ Generate a Cartesian product of all rows from two or more tables Using subqueries to solve queries ÛÛ NÛ Define subqueries NÛ Describe the types of problems that the subqueries can solve NÛ List the types of subqueries NÛ Write single-row and multiple-row subqueries Using the Set operators ÛÛ NÛ Describe set operators NÛ Use a set operator to combine multiple queries into a single query NÛ Control the order of rows returned
A database has many tables that store data. In Chapter 1, “Introducing SQL,” you learned how to write simple queries that select data from one table. Although this information is essential to passing the certification exam, the ability to join two or more related tables and access information is the core strength of relational databases. Using the SELECT statement, you can write advanced queries that satisfy user requirements. This chapter focuses on querying data from more than one table using table joins and subqueries. When you use two or more tables or views in a single query, it is a join query. You’ll need to understand how the various types of joins and subqueries work, as well as the proper syntax, for the certification exam. Set operators in Oracle let you combine results from two or more SELECT statements. The results of each SELECT statement are considered a set, and Oracle provides UNION, INTERSECT, and MINUS operators to get the desired results. You will learn how these opera- tors work in this chapter. Writing Multiple-Table Queries In relational database management systems (RDBMSs), related data can be stored in mul- tiple tables. You use the power of SQL to relate the information and query data. A SELECT statement has a mandatory SELECT clause and FROM clause. The SELECT clause can have a list of columns, expressions, functions, and so on. The FROM clause tells you in which table(s) to look for the required information. In Chapter 1, you learned to query data using simple SELECT statements from a single table. In this chapter, you will learn how to retrieve data from more than one table. To query data from more than one table, you need to identify common columns that relate the two tables. Here’s how you do it: 1. In the SELECT clause, you list the columns you are interested in from all the related tables. 2. In the FROM clause, you include all the table names separated by commas. 3. In the WHERE clause, you define the relationship between the tables listed in the FROM clause using comparison operators. You can also specify the relationship using a JOIN clause instead of the WHERE clause. The JOIN clause introduced by Oracle in Oracle 9i was then added to conform to the ISO/ANSI
Writing Multiple-Table Queries 199 SQL1999 standard. Throughout this section, you’ll see examples of queries using the Ora- cle native syntax as well as the ISO/ANSI SQL1999 standard. A query from multiple tables without a relationship or common column is known as a Cartesian join or cross join and is discussed later in this chapter. A join is a query that combines rows from two or more tables or views. Oracle performs a join whenever multiple tables appear in the query’s FROM clause. The query’s SELECT clause can have the columns or expressions from any or all of these tables. If multiple tables have the same column names, the duplicate column names should be qualified in the queries with their table name or table alias. Inner Joins Inner joins return only the rows that satisfy the join condition. The most common operator used to relate two tables is the equality operator (=). If you relate two tables using an equal- ity operator, it is an equality join, also known as an equijoin. This type of join combines rows from two tables that have equivalent values for the specified columns. Simple Inner Joins A simple inner join has only the join condition specified, without any other filtering condi- tions. For example, let’s consider a simple join between the DEPARTMENTS and LOCATIONS tables of the HR schema. The common column in these tables is LOCATION_ID. You will query these tables to get the location ID, city name, and department names in that city: SELECT locations.location_id, city, department_name FROM locations, departments WHERE locations.location_id = departments.location_id; Here, you are retrieving data from two tables—two columns from the LOCATIONS table and one column from the DEPARTMENTS table. These two tables are joined in the WHERE clause using an equality operator on the LOCATION_ID column. It is not necessary for the column names in both tables to have the same name to have a join. Notice that the LOCATION_ID column is qualified with its table name for every occurrence. This is to avoid ambiguity; it is not necessary to qualify each column, but it increases the readability of the query. If the same column name appears in more than one table used in the query, you must qualify the column name with the table name or table alias. To execute a join of three or more tables, Oracle takes these steps: 1. Oracle joins two of the tables based on the join conditions, comparing their columns. 2. Oracle joins the result to another table, based on join conditions. 3. Oracle continues this process until all tables are joined into the result.
200 Chapter 4 N Using Joins and Subqueries Complex Inner Joins Apart from specifying the join condition in the WHERE clause, you may have another condition to limit the rows retrieved. Such joins are known as complex joins. For example, to con- tinue with the example in the previous section, if you are interested only in the departments that are outside the United States, use this query: SELECT locations.location_id, city, department_name FROM locations, departments WHERE locations.location_id = departments.location_id AND country_id != ‘US’; LOCATION_ID CITY DEPARTMENT_NAME ----------- -------------------- ----------------- 1800 Toronto Marketing 2400 London Human Resources 2700 Munich Public Relations 2500 Oxford Sales Using Table Aliases Like columns, tables can have alias names. Table aliases increase the readability of the query. You can also use them to shorten long table names with shorter alias names. Specify the table alias name next to the table, separated with a space. You can rewrite the query in the previous section using alias names, as follows: SELECT l.location_id, city, department_name FROM locations l, departments d WHERE l.location_id = d.location_id AND country_id != ‘US’; When tables (or views or materialized views) are specified in the FROM clause, Oracle looks for the object in the schema (or user) connected to the database. If the table belongs to another schema, you must qualify it with the schema name. (You may avoid this by using synonyms, which are discussed in Chapter 7, “Creating Schema Objects.”) You can use the schema owner to qualify a table; you can also use the table owner and schema owner to qualify a column. Here is an example: SELECT locations.location_id, hr.locations.city ,department_name FROM hr.locations, hr.departments WHERE locations.location_id = departments.location_id; Keep in mind that you can qualify a column name with its schema and table only when the table name is qualified with the schema. In the previous SQL, you qualified the column