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Phương pháp tự rèn luyện kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh học thuật: Phần 2

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Phần 2 cuốn sách "Phương pháp tự rèn luyện kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh học thuật" gồm 5 chương trình bày trọng tâm về cú pháp với phạm vi đề cập là mệnh đề và câu, cách dùng các dấu chám câu, các từ ngữ chuyển mạch và cách làm bài viết trong điều kiện có áp lực về thời gian. Mời các bạn cùng tham khảo nội dung chi tiết.

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  1. PART III Sentence Stmcture 169
  2. CHAPTER Types of Sentences ♦ i ^ • : I o ' » .• i < t Thai manuscript Clauses Clauses are the building blocks o f sentences. A clause is a group o f words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb. These are clauses: These are not clauses: ecology is a Science to protect the environment because pollution causes cancer after working ail day There are tvvo kinds o f clauses: independent and dependent. 170
  3. Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences hưỉependent Cỉauses An independent claiise contains a subject and a verb and expresses a compleíe thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itselí. An independent clause is funned vvith subject verb (+ complement) Students normally spend four years in college. I will declare my major’ now, but I may change it later. Many international students experience cuỉture shock when they tome to the United States. Independent Cỉauses A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, whiỉe, if, íhaí, or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itselí. A dependent clause is íormed with suborđinator + subject verb (+ complement) . although students normally spend four years In college. if I đeclare my major now... when they come to the United States... who was accepted at Harvard University that the experiment was a success... A partial list o f subordinators tbllovvs in the chart o f clause connectors. Stuđy th chart, and then refer to it when you do Practice I . Clause Connectors Three groups o f vvords are used to connect clauses in order to form different kinds c sentences. They are subordinators (subordinating conjunctions), coordinators (cooi dinating conjunctions), and conjunctive adverbs. ’ declare my major: officially register a major field o f study vvith the university
  4. Part III Sentence Structure CLAUSE CONNECTORS SUBORDINATORS (SUBORDINATING C0NJUNCT10NS) aíter before that when vvhich aỉthough even though though vvhenever vvhiỉe as hovv unỉess vvhere who as if if until vvherever vvhom as soon as since what \vhether vvhose because so that COORDINATORS (COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS: for and nor but or yet so C0NJUNCT1VE ADVERBS accordingly furthermore in contrast meanwhiỉe on the other haind besides hence ỉndeed moreover otherwise consequently hovvever instead nevertheless therefore for example in addition likewise nonetheless thus PRACTICE I lỉìdependeiu and Dependent Ciaiises Write ỈNDEP next to the independent clauses and put a period (.) after them. Write DEP next to the dependent clauses. ____ 1. Jet ỉag affects most ỉong-distance travelers ____ 2. Which is simply the urge to slcep at inappropriate times ____ 3. During long journeys through several time 70nẹs, the body's iniicrclock is disrupted ____ 4. For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lagthantravel fro)m east to vvest __5. Also, changes in vvork schedules can cause jet lag ____ 6. When hospita! nurses change from a day shiíìt to a night shift,for example ____ 7. Although there is no sure vvay to prevent jet ỉag ____ 8. There are some ways to minimize it ____ 9. Because jet lag is caused at least partialỉy by ỉost o f sleep, not just a change ini the time o f sleep ____ 10. A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination as late as possible ____ 11. Upon arriving, he or she should iinmediately go to bed ____ 12. Then the traveler should start to live in.the new time frame immediately 72
  5. Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences Khuls o/Seníences A sentence is a group of vvords that you use to comrnunicate your iđeas. Every scntence is íormed from one or more clauses and expresses a complete thoưght. There are basically four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compound, compỉex, and compound-compĩex. The kind o f sentence is determined by the kind o f cỉauses used to form it. Sùnpie Sentences A simple sentence is one independent clause. / eỉỹoy pỊaving tennis \vith mv/riends every> \veekenci. ỉ Cìỹoy plaỵing tennis and ỉook fon\'cird to it every \veekend. M yfriends and ỉ pỉay íennis and go bo\vling evcỉy \ị'eekend. Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, enjoy and ỉook /onvarci to. This is called a compound verb. Because there is only one clause, this is a simple sentence. The third sentence has a compound subject as vvell as a compound verb, but it is still a simple sentence because it has only one cỉause. PRACTICE 2 Simpỉe Sentences 1. Write two simple sentenceswith one subject and one verb. 2. Write two simple senlencesvvith one subject and two verbs. 3. Write two simple sentericesvvith tvvo subjects and tvvo verbs. Contpound Sentences A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are three vvays to join the cỉauses: 1. With a coordinator ! enjov tennis, but 1 hate golf. 2. With a conjunctive adverb 1enjoy tennis; hoNvever, I hate í;olf. 3. With a semicolon 1enịoy tennis; 1 hate goir Let's study each type of compound sentence in more detail. ỉ, Compoiitui Setìíences with Coordinaíors A compound sentence can be formed as follows: Independení clause, + coordinator + independent clause Notice that there is a comma after the ĩirst independent clause. The following sentences iỉlustraíe the meanings o f the seven "FAN BOYS' coordinators. 17*
  6. Part III Sentence Structure Women live longer than men, for they take better care o f their Health. for (The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.) Women follow more healthíul diets, and they go to doctors more oíten. and (The tvvo clauses express equal, similar ideas). Women don't smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much nor alcohol (Nor means "and not," It joins two negative independent clauses. Notice that question vvord order is used after nor,) Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as but vvomen do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.) Both men and vvomen should ỉimit the amount o f fat in their diets, or they or risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express altemative possibilities.) VVomen used to be known as the "vveaker sex," Jet in some ways, they are yet stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected contrast to the first clause.) Men are ỉess cautious than vvomen, so more men die in accidents. (The so second clause is the result o f the ĩirst clause.) PRACTICE 3 Compoimd Sentences wỉíh Coordìnators A. Add another independent cỉause to the íollovving independent clauses to form compound sentences. Be sure to vvrite a complete clause containing a subject and a verb. Circle the coordinator and add punctuation. Example The college campus is located in the center o f the citv, @ it is verv easv to do mv shopping___________________________________________________________________ ì . Students can attend day classes and_________________________________________ 2. Students can live in dormitories or 3. í have finished my math homevvork but 4. I have studied English for six years yet 5. My adviser suggested a word Processing class for 6. Some students do not like to Nvrite term papers nor 7. The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers yet 174
  7. Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences 8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor _______________________________ 9. The instructor vvas very upset for 10. My roommate scored very lìigh on the English placement test so B. For each pair o f sentences belovv, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning. and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. Use each FAN BOYS coordinator once. Write your new sentences on a separate sheet o f paper, and punctuate them correctly. Example Nuclear accidents can happen. Nuclear poNver plants must have strict safety Controls. Niiclear accidents can happen, so nuclear povver plants must have strict saíetv Controls. 1. The accident at the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Isỉand in the United States created fears about the safety o f this energy source. The disaster at Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union confirmed' them. 2. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost o f installation is very high. 3. Energy needs are not going to decrease. Energy sources are not going to increase. (Use nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the vvord noí.) 4. Buming fossil íuel causes serious damage to our planet. We need to develop other sources o f energy. 5. Ecologists knovv that burning íossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. Peopỉe continue to do it. 6. Poorer nations especially wịlỉ continue this harmful practice. They don't have the money to develop "clean” energy sources. 7. All nations o f the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren wiỉl suffer the consequences. c. On a separale sheet o f paper, write sevcn compound sentences o f your ovvn, using each coordinator once. 2, Compouĩui Seníences with Conjuncíìve Adverhs A compound sentence can also be íornied as follows: I independent clau se ; co n ju n ctive adverb, + independent cỉau se Notice the punctuation: a semicolon íoỉlovvs the firsí independent clause, and a comma follows the conjunctive adverb. Also, just like the FAN BOYS coordinators, conjunctive adverbs express relationships betvveen the clauses. The following chart shovvs the coordinators and conjunctive adverbs that express similar meanings. confirmed: proved that they vvere correct 175
  8. Part lfl Sentence Structure C o m p o u n d S e n te n c e : w ith C O IIju n c iìv e A d v e rb s C0NJUNCT1VE COORDINATORS SENTENCE ADVERBS besides Community colleges offer preparalion íurthermore for many occupations; moreover, they and moreover prepare students to transfer to a four- also year coilege or university. hovvever Many community colỉeges do not have but nevertheless dormitories; hovvever; they provide yet nonetheless housing referral services. Students must take fmal exams; other- or otherwise wise, they vvill receive a grade o f incompỉete. accordingly consequently Native and nonnative English speakers have different needs; thereíore, most so hence schools provide separate English therefore classes for each group. thưs PRACTICE 4 A. Add another independent clause to each independent clause that follows to íorm compound sentences. Be sure to add a complete clause containing a subject and a verb. Circle the conjunctive adverb and add punctuation. Notice that some o f these sentences are from Practice 3A on pages 174-175. Example The college campus is ỉocated in the center o f the city; |therefore,| it is verv easv to do mv shopping___________________________________________________________________ 1. Students can attend day classes m oreover_____________________________________ 2. Students can live in dormitories othervvise 3. I have fínished my maữ homevvork hovvever 4 .1 have studied English for six years nevertheỉess 5. The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers nonetheless 6. M y roommate scored very high on the English placement test consequentỉy 176
  9. Chapter 10 Types of Sentences B. On a separate sheet o f paper, combine the pairs o f sentences in items 2, 4, 5, and 7 írom Practice 3B on page 175, using conjunctive adverbs Instead o f Coordinators. Punctuate your new sentences correctỉy. Exampĩe Nuclear acGÌdents can happen. Nưcỉear power piants should have strict saíety Controls. Nucỉear ơccicients can happerì: thereiòre, nucỉear power plants should have strict saieív controỉs c. On a separate sheet o f paper, write four compound sentences, using each o f these conjunctive adverbs once: /uríherm ore, however, iherefore, and oíhenvise. i. Compound Senteuces with Semicoỉons A compound sentence can also be formed with a semicolon alone; Independent clause; independent ciause My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies medicine. Poland was the first Eastern European country to turn away from communism; others soon followed. This kind o f compound sentence is possỉbỉe onỉy vvhen the two ỉndependent cỉauses are closely reỉated in meaning. Ị f they aren't closely related, they shouỉd be vNTÌtten as tvvo simple sentences, each ending vvitlì a period. PRACTICE5 Compound SetUences Wỉíh Semicoỉons A. Place a semicolon betvveen the two independent clauses in the íolỉovving compouncl sentences. 1. The American way o f ỉife apparentỉy does not foster’ marital happiness hair o f aỉl American marriages end in divorce. 2. Motherhood causes some vvomen to qiiit their jobs others continue vvorking despite having young children to care for. 3. Three hundred guests attended his vvedding two attended his íuneral. B. Write three compound sentences o f yoiir ovvn, using a semicolon to jo in the independent clauses. PRAGXrCE Comhiniỉĩg Simpie Seníences Use what you have learned about forming compoưnd sentences to improve the followỉng mini-essay, vvhicli contains many short, simple sentences. Combine sentences vvherever possibỉe. Try to use each o f the three methods at least once. There is not just one correct vvay to combine the sentences: there are many possible vvays. ĩoster: encourage 177
  10. Part III Sentence Structure Robots robot is a mechanical device that can períorm boring, dangerous, and dlfficult tasks. ^First of all, robots can pertorm repetitive tasks vvithout becoming tired or bored. ^ h e y are used in automobile íactories to weld‘ and paint. “^Robots can also íunction in hostile environments. ^ h e y are useíul for exploring the ocean bottom as welí as deep outer space. ®Finally, robots can pertorm tasks requiring pinpoint accuracy. ^!n the operating room, robotic equipment can assist the surgeon. ®For instance, a robot can kiỉl a braln tumor. ®lt can operate on a fetus“ with great precislon. ^°The íield of artiíicial intelligence Is giving robots a limited abiỉity to think and to make decisions. ^^However, robots cannot think conceptually. '^Robots cannot íunction independently. ^^Humans have to program them. ^^They are useless. (Use otherwise to combine sentences 13 and 14.) ^^heretore, humans should not worry that robots wi!l take over the world-at least not yet. Wríting Technìque Questỉons 1. What is the main idea o f each paragraph? What sentences State the main ideas? 2. What method o f organization is used to develop the first paragraph? Complex Sentences A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one (or more) dependent cỉause(s). In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other One. The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea is placed in the dependent clause. There are three kinds o f dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and noun. The follow ing chart presents an overvievv o f them. You vviỉl study all o f these kinds o f clauses in greater detaiỉ in Chapters 11,12 and 13. DEPENDENT CLAƯSES ADVERBSCLAUSES A dependent adverb clause begins Nvith an adverbiaỉ subordinator such as when, while, because, although if, so that. etc. 1. Although women in the United States could own property, they could not vote until 1920. 2. In the United States, women could not vote untiỉ 1920 although they could own property. Notice that there are two possible positions for an adverb clause: beíore or after the inđependent cỉause. I f it comes beíore the independent clause, it is foỉỉowed by a comma (sentence 1). I f it comes after the independent clause, no comma is used (sentence 2) ' weld: join metaỉ by applying heat " fetus: unbom baby 178
  11. Chapter 10 Types of Sentences A D JE C T lV E C LA yS E S A dependent adjective (relative) clause begins vvith a relative pronoun such as who, whom, which, whose, or that, or with a relative adverb such as where or when. An adjective clause functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a noun or pronoun. The position and punctuation o f dependent adjective clauses is discussed in Chapter 13 3. Men who are not married are called bachelors. 4. Last year we vacationed on the Red Sea, which íeatures excellent scuba diving. A dependent noun clause íunctions as a noun and begins vvith a w/7-question word, that, whether, or sometimes if. A dependent noun clause can be either a subject (sentence 5) or an object (sentence 6). No commas are necessary. 5. That there Is a hole in the ozone laỵer of the earth's atmosphere is well known. 6. Scientists believe that excess chloroíluorocarbons in the atmosphere are responsible for creating it. PRACTICE 7 A. STEP 1 Underline the independent clause o f each sentence with a solid line. STEP 2 Underline the dependent clause vvith a broken line. STEP 3 Write SUB above the subordinator. Refer to the chart on page 172 for a lisí o f subordinators. Example SUB Because the cost o f educations is rising, manv students mưst vvork part-time, 1. When students from other coưntries come to the United States, they often suffer from culture shock. 2. Because the cost o f education has risen, many students are having financial problems. 3. Please tell me vvhere (he studenl Uíìion is. 4. Engineers, vvho have an aptitude for drafting and mechanics, must also be artistic and imaginative. 5. While the contractor follows the blueprint, the engineer checks the construction in progress. 6. Since the blueprint presents the details o f the engineer’s plans, it must be interpreted accurately by the contractor. 7.Students shouỉd declare a major by their ịunior year unỉess they have not made up their minđs. 8. Even though students decỉare a major now, they can change it later. 9. Last year, the government reported that drug use is increasing. 10. Doctors are concemed about drug use by young people, who think that smoking marijuana is risk-free. 179
  12. Part III Senteiice Structure B. STEP 1 Add a logical independent cỉause to each o f the following dependent cỉauses. STEP 2 Punctuate each sentence correctly. Ì . __________________ untiỉ i pay niy tuition. 2 . _______________________________________ unless ỉ take tvvelve units. 3 . ________________________________________ that Computer engineering is a popuỉar maịor. 4 . ________________________________ vvho is chair o f the Communications Department. 5. Because 1 had to look for a part-time jo b __________________ 6 . ___________________________________ i f I want to get to school on time. 7 . _________________________________________ \vhether I should take advanced calculus. 8 . ___________________________________ whom I met at the social club meeting last month. 9 . ______________________________________ vvhen I left my country. 10. _____________________________________ that my college adviser recommends. Compound-Compỉex Sentences A compound-complex sentence is a combination o f tvvo or more independent clauses and one (or more) dependent clauses. Many combinations are possible, and their punctuation requires careful attention. 1 .1 wanted to travel after I graduated from college; hovvever, I had to go to work immediately. 2. Atter I graduated from college. I wanted to travel. but I had to go to work immediateỉy. 3. ỉ wanteđ to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work Immediately because ị had to support my family. 4. I couldn't decide where I should work or what I should do. so I did nothing. • Punctuate the compound part o f a compound-complex sentence like a compound sentence; that is, use a semicolon/comma combination (sentence 1), or put a comma before a coordinator joining tvvo clauses (sentences 2, 3, and 4). • Punctuate the compỉex part like a complex sentence. With adverb clauses, put a comma after a dependent adverb clause (sentence 2) but not before them (sentence 3). With noun cỉauses, use no commas (sentence 4). PRACTICE 8 Compound-Compỉex Sentences Punctuate these compound-complex sentences. STEP 1 Underline the independent cỉauses vvith a solid line and the dependent clauses vvith a broken line. STEP 2 Add commas and/ or semicoỉons as necessary. 1. I f housework and chiỉdcare are included vvomen vvork more hours per vveek than men every place in the vvorid except North America and Australia but they also earn less than men everyvvhere. 180
  13. Chapter 10 Types of Sentences 2. In Africa, NVomen vvork harder than men because they work 67 hours per vveek but men vvork only 53. Although Latin American vvomen vvork 60 hours Latin men work only 54 and in Asia vvomen work 62 hoiirs to men's 48. 4. Men in Western Europe work the least they put in only 43 hours per week although women average 48. 5. The report started that even vvhen men’s vvorking hours vvere reduced they used the extra time for leisure activities rather than for housevvork or childcare. Contpound Sentences (Coordination) versus Compíex Sentences (Subordination) Good vvriting requires a mixture o f all four kinds o f sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. A composition vvith only short, simple sentences is boring and inefĩective, as is vvriting that uses too many compound sentences. W rỉting vvith complex sentences and participial phrases’, structures that use subordination, is General ly considered more mature, interesting, and effective in styíe. Compare the tvvo models that follow. The ĩirst model is an exampỉe o f overcoordination, or vvriting with too many compound sentences. In the second modeỉ, some o f the coordinalỉon has been replaced by subordination-compỉex sentences in sentences 5, 6, 7, 9,11 and 12 and participial phrases in sentences 5 and 10. Notice, hovvever, that coordination has been preserved vvhere the ideas expressed are equal (sentences 1,4 and 8). IVIODEL Overcoordhtation The People's Princess ^Diana, Phncess of Wales, was born in Noríolk, England, in 1961, and she died in Paris, Prance. in 1997. ^People around the world were fascinated by the transíormation of this shy kindergarten teacher into an independent, selí-assured young woman. ^Her sudden death in a car crash vvhile being chased by photographers prompted worỉdwide discussion and grieí. ^Diana Spencer was born to a wealthy. upper-class Engllsh íamily, and she was educated in private schools ín England and Switzerland. ^She ỉoved chlldren, so she became a klndergarten teacher. ®She led a quiet ỉife in London, but then she met Charles, Prince of VVales, and her life changed dramaticalỉy. ^She and Charles marrled in 1981, and her ỉife as the wife of the íuture king of England began. ®She gave birth to two sons and became active in charity work. ®Diana's life shouid have been a happy one, but it was not to be. ^°She and Charles began having mahtal problems, and they separated in 1992, and they agreed to divorce in 1996. ^Dlana worked very hard at her job as princess, and she supported many causes, especially those related to children and AIDS victims. ’^She lived for only a short time, but she touched people all over the vvorld because of her beauty, her compassion for others, and her style.___________________________________________ Panicipial phrases are presented in Chapter 14 181
  14. Part 111 Sentence Structure mm Subordinatỉon The People's Princess ^Diana, Princess of Wales, was born in Nortoỉk, Engiand In 1961 and died in Paris, Prance in 1997. ^People around the world were íascinated by the transíormation of this shy kindergarten teacher Into an independent, self-assured young woman. ^Her sudden death in a car crash while being chased by photographers prompted worldwide discussion and grieí. ^Diana Spencer was born to a wealthy, upper-class English íamily and educated in private schools In England and Switzerland. ^Because she loved children, she became a kindergarten teacher, leading a quiet lie in London. ®However, when she met Charles. Prince of Wales, her life changed dramaticaỉly. ^After she and Charles marrled in 1981, her life as the wife of the íuture king of England began. ®She gave birth to two sons and became active in charity work. ®Although Diana's life should have been a happy one, it was not to be. ’°She and Charles began having mahtal problems, separating in 1992 and to divorce in 1996. ^^Diana, who vvorked very hard at her job as princess, supported many causes, especialiy those related to children and AIDS vlctims. ’^Even though she ỉived for a short time, she touched people all over the world because of*her beauty, her compassion for others and her style. PRACTICE9 Subordination Change the foỉlowing compound sentences to complex sentences by subordimating one o f the clauses. Use the subordinator given. Note: Be sure to add the subordinaitor to the correct clause so that the resulting sentence is ỉogical. Example It vvas raining, so I took an umbrelỉa to work. (because) Not logical: It vvas raining because I took an umbrella to vvork. Logical: 1 took an umbrella to vvork because it was raíning. 1. In the fom ier Soviet Union, men and vvomen had access to equal education anid job opportunities, for that reílected the Soviet philosophy. (since) 2. The 19^7 Soviet constitution declared that vvomen and men had equal rightíS and responsibilities, and vvomen joined the workforces. (after) 3. Also, millions o f Russian men vvere avvay in the m ilitary during W orld War .II, so Russian vvomen filled their places at vvork. (because) 4. Soviet, vvomen vvorked fulỉ time at their jobs, but they also had the priimary responsibility for taking care o f the family. (although) 5. They fmished their work, and they hađ to shop, cook the evening meal, and perrhaps vvash, iron, or mend the family's cỉothes. (as soon as). 182
  15. ChapterlO Types of Sentences PRACTICE 10 C o m h ỉỉtin g S e n te n ce s in D ìffe r e n t Use what you have leamed about the four kinds o f sentences to improve these paragraphs, vvhich contains too many short, simple sentences. Use different methods o f combining the seniences. You may want to refer to the chart on page 172 for a list o f coordinators and subordinators. Nonverbaỉ Communication ^Nonverbal communication, or body language, is used everyvvhere in the world. ^It is a very powerful means of communication. communicates much more than spoken vvords. ^One example of nonverbal communication is what occurs betvveen parents and child. ^parents smile at their child. ^hey communicate love, acceptance, and reassurance. ^The child feels comíortable and safe. ®The smiie signifies approval. ^ h e child is happy and well-adjusted. ^°Another exampỉe of such communication is the ỉmage a person projects in public. woman is vvalking alone on an unfamiliar and possibly dangerous Street, ^^she vvants to appear conĩident. ^^She should walk briskly. ^^She may be tired. ^^She should walk with her shoulders straight and her head heid high. '®Her eyes shouỉd be íocused straight ahead. ^^Someone is looking at her. ’®She should return the gỉance vvíthout hesitation. contrast. a nervous woman wilỉ appear aíraid. ^°She waỉks slovvly with her shoulders drooping and her eyes looking downward. ^^Indeed, body ianguage can express more than spoken language. is a very strong method of communication. ‘23f ^'^People use their body signaỉs carelessly. ^^They can sometimes be misinterpreted. Review These are the important points in this chapter so far: 1. Clauses are the main building blocks o f sentences. There are two kinds o f clauses: independent and dependent. 1 ......... ............ ................. .. . ■ An independent clausc • expresses a complete thought. English grammar is easy. • can be a sentence by itse!f. A dependent cỉause • becins vvith a subordinator. Adverb: ... because grammar is easy... • cannot be a sentence by itself. Adjective: .... vvhich is in Spanish... • is one o f three types: adverb, adjective, Noun: ... that grammar is easy... or roun. 183
  16. Part 111 Sentence Structure 2. There are four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compoiind, complex, and compound-complex. Each kind is punctuated differently. A simple sentence has one r- , M J T Englislì Qrammar is easy. independent clause. o J A compoiind sentence has two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. Grammar is easy. so 1 leamed it quickỉy. a conjunctive adverb. Grammar is easy, cherefore, I learned it quickly. a semicolon. Grammar is easy; I learned it quickly. A complex sentence has one With an adverb clause: independent and one (or more) Because grammar is easy. Ilearnedit quickỉy. dependent clauses. The , , . . .^ ,I , purctuation depends on the kind ' srammar quickly because it is easy, o f dependent ciause(s). With an adjective clause; One o f my favorite film s is Like Waỉer for Chocolate, vvhich is in Spanish. With a noun clause: She doesn’t agree that grammar is easy. A compound-complex sentence Because grammar is easy, I learned it quickly, biit has tvvo indepenđent clauses and it took me several years to master' vvriting. one (or more) dependent clauses. 3. Allhough good vvriters use all four kinds o f sentences, the use o f subordination (complex and compound-complex sentences) is considered a more mature, interesting, and effective \vriting síyle. Paralleỉism Parallelism is an important element in English \vriting, especially vvhen yoii are Ịisting and comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means thai each item in a list or comparison ĩollovvs the same grammatical pattern. Ị f you are vvriting a list and the first item in your list is a noun, vvrite all o f the follow ing items as nouns also. I f the ĩirst item is an iníìnitive verb phrase, make all o f the others infinitive verb phraS" es; i f it is a dependent clause, make all o f the others dependenl clauses. Ị f you are making a comparison or contrast, make sLire that the items you are comparing or contrasting are the same. 184
  17. Chapter 10 Types of Scntences Notice hovv the rule o f parallelism is folỉowed iĩỉ the second sentence in each o f the ĩollovving sets. N oí p a ra lỉel M y English conversation class is made up o f Chinese, Spaniards, and some are from Bosnia. P aralleỉ M y Engỉish conversation class is made up o f Chinese, Spaniards, and Bosnians. No( paraỊỊeỉ The students vvho do vvell attend class. ihey do their homevvork, and practice speaking in English. Parallcỉ The students vvho do vvell attend class, đo th e ir h om ew o rk, and practice speaking in Engỉish. Noi p a ra ỉle l The teacher wanted to knovv vvhich country vve came from and OLir future goals. P aralỉeỉ The teacher vvanted to knovv vvhich country vve came from and vvhat our tuture goaỉs vvere. N o ị paraỉỊeỉ The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the same as the day classes. P ũrallel The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the same as the ỉanguage skills o f the students in the day classes. You may also siibstitute a pronoun for the second "the language skills": The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the same as those o f the students in the day ciasses. Aỉl o f the \vords in the Tirst item do not aỉvvays have to be repeated in the second. You may rcpeat all or some o f the vvords, depending Iipon vvhat you vvish to emphasize. Before you vvTÌte a paper or (before) (you) take a test, you must organize your thoughts. ’‘Before” and/or ” you" may be deleted from the second item vvithout breaking the rule o f paralleỉism. L^eĩore you vvrite a paper or take a test, you must organize your thoughts. C oordhuitors __ And, Or, But Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, oì\ and bxịt are vvritten in paralỉeỉ íbrm. Notice the parallel striictures joined by coordinators in the íoỉlovving senleiices: The Pederal A ir Pollution Control Administration reguiates automobile exhausts, and the Pederal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft. The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft. Pesticides cannot be sold i f they have an adverse* effect on humans, on anỉmal life, or on the environment. adverse: uníavorable 185
  18. Part III Scntence Structure Correlative Conjunctions Use paralỉel íorms vvith the coưeỉative conjunctions both ... and, eỉíher ... or; neithcr ... nor, and not o n ỉy ... hut also. Correlative conjunctions are placed directly before the elements they jo in in the sentence. Notice the parallel structure in these clauses joined by coưelative conjunctions: A new law provides the means for both reguỉating pesticides and ordering their removaí if they are dangerous. Air pollutants may come either from the ocean as naturai contamlnants given off by sea ỉife or from the internal combustion engines of automobiles. If neither industry nor the Public works toward reducing polỉutlon problems, íuture generations wili suffer; Many people are neither concerned about pollutants nor vvorrieđ about their íuture impact. At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed not only to reduce the pollutants at their sources but also to set up acceptable standards of air quality. PRACTICE 11 Paraỉietism A. Tvvo or more items in each o f the follow ing sentences are Nvritten in paralỉel grammatical form. Underline the items or iđeas that are parallel, and circỉe the vvord or vvords that connect the paraliel structures. Example An ideal envỉronment for studying includes good ỉighting, a spacÌQus desk, Ịànd comfortable chair: 1. You know you are truly biỉingual when you can calculate in your second language and vvhen you begin to đream in it. 2. People often spend as much time Nvorrying about the future as p lan n in g for it. 3. You can learn a second in the classroom, at home, or in a country vvhere the language is spoken. 4. My new personal Com puter is both fast and reliable. 5. My old typevvriter is neither íasl nor reliable. 6. Ann is growing older but unfortunately not vviser. 7. Young people buy computers not only to do schoolvvork but also to play games. 8. I f industrial nations continue to bum fossil fueỉs and i f developing nations continue to bum their rain forests, the ỉevel o f CO2 in the atmosphere vvill continue to increase. 9. Beíore the judge announced the sentence,’ he asked the murderer i f he vvanted to speak either to the victinVs íamiỉy or to the jury. 10. The criminal neither admiíted guiỉt nor asked for forgiveness beíore he was executed. * sentence: punishment 186
  19. Chapter 10 Types of Sentences B. Revvrite the follow ing sentcnces in parallel form. Underline the part o f the sentence that is not parallel and correct it. Example The disadvantages o f using a credit card are overspendirm and vou pay high interest rates. The disadvantages o f using a credit card are overspendinạ and paying hiạh interest rates. 1. Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can be used ỉn some gas stations. 2. You do not need to risk carrying cash or to risk to pass up‘ a sale. 3. With credit cards, you can either pay your bill vvith one check, or you can slretch out your payments. COMPUTER TIP 4. You can charge both at restaurants and vvhen you síay at Hotels. Computer programs that check your style are avaílabie 5. Many peopỉe cairy not only credit cards but they also carry cash. Hovvever. these programs alen you only to certain stylistic 6. Many peopỉe vvant neither to payoff their balance monthly nor do problems They are not able to detect problems they like paying interest. in grammar 7. Not making any payment or to send in only mỉnimum payments every month is poor money management. c. Write seven original sentences in parallel form, using the coordinating conjunctions and, or: and h iit and the correlative conjunctions boíh ... and, eiĩher ... or, n e iíh e r... nor, and not o n lv ... but aỉso one time each. Sentence Prohlems In this section, you vvill ỉearn to recognize and correct some common errors In sentence structure: sentence íragments as vvell as choppy, run-on, and stringy sentences. Sciìteiìce FragmeiUs Sentence íragments are incomplete sentences or parts o f sentences. Remember that a comolete sentence must contain at ỉeast one main or independent clause. ' pass ap: miss an opportunity 187
  20. Part ĨII Sentence Structure Study the foIlowing four examples o f sentence fragments and the sugíĩested methods for correcting them. 1. Because some students work part4ime vvhiỉe taking a fuỉỉ load o f courses. Probỉem: This is a dependent clause. To correct: Attach it to an independent claiise. Because some síĩidents work part-time W'hiỉe taking a fu ll loaci (>f courses, ỉhev have very> liltle free ỉinie. 2. For exampie, the increase in the eost o f renting an apartment. Probỉem: There is no verb. To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a verb. For e.xample, the cost oJ reníing on aparímení increased. 3. Peeiino lonely and íailing most o f his classes. Problem: This is a partidpial phrase. To correct: (a) Add a subject and change the participỉes tG verbs, or (b) attach the phrase to an independent cỉause. (a) He feỉt Ịonelv and wơs /a ị/in g most o f lĩìs cíasses. (b) FeeỊịfiiỉ ỉoneỉv and /ơ iỉin g most o f lĩis classes, the studenỊ wise/y cieciíỉed to make an appointmení \viíh ìùs counseỉor. 4. Many young people who ỉeave home at an early age. Problem: This is a noiin phrase + a relative clause. The independent clause is uníinished. To correct: (a) Change the relative clause into an independent claiise, or (b) compỉete the unfmished independent clause. (a) Manv voung peopỉe leave homc ưt an early age. (b) Xíanv voỉtníỊ people \vho lecive liome at an earỉv age do not nuínaị^e llìc ir monev weìl. Alvvays check your own vvriting for sentence Tragments. Pay particLiỉar attention to your sentences beíiinning with subordinating conjunctions (aỉíhoĩỉgh, since, hecause, if, he/ore, etc.). These are DANGER WORDS! Make sure tỉiat every subordinate clause beginning vvith tliese vvords is attached to an independent clause. PRACTICE 12 Rewrìíutỵ Sentence Fragmeiìts A. Read the íollovving sentences. Mark them FRAG i f they are sentence tVagments, or COMP i f they are complete sentences. On a separate piece o f paper, revvrite cach fragment to make a complete sentence. ____ 1. The desirc o ra ll hiimankincỉ lo IIve in peacc and íVcedom, for cxarnplc. ____ 2. Sccond, Ihc lầcl ihal men are pliysically strongcr than womcn. ____ 3. rhe bcsl movie that I savv lasl ycar. ____ 4. Titanic vvas the most financially successfuỉ movie ever madc. ____ 5. Por cxamplc, niany sludcnls have part-timc ịobs. ____ 6. Aỉlhouíìh pcoplc \vant lo bcỉicvc that all mcn arc created equai. ____ 7. ỉ'inciing a suilablc marriage partncr is a challcnging task. ____ 8. Many o f my rricnds who didn’t havc ihc opportunily to go to collcgc. ____ 9. Working during ihe moming and altending classcs during thc aíìcrnoon. 188
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